Etymology 語源学
Etymology is the study of the origin of words. Japanese is often referred to as a language isolate (孤立した言語) because of how it is not known to be related to other languages. However, this is not entirely true because it is just one language of several languages spoken in the Japonic language family (日琉語族).
As for Japanese, words are categorized etymologically as deriving from three broad sources: native vocabulary (和語), Sino-Japanese vocabulary (漢語), and foreign-origin words (外来語).
Native Words 和語
Native words 和語, also known as 大和言葉1, are words largely believed to originate within the Japonic language family2. These words are what we typically associate with KUN readings.
| Word | Meaning |
| 雨（あめ） | Rain |
| 水（みず） | Water |
| 草（くさ） | Grass |
| 空（そら） | Sky |
| 耳（みみ） | Ear |
Phonologically, native vocabulary demonstrates the following features:
①Generally speaking, neither voiced consonants nor /p/ may appear in word-initial position. Onomatopoeic words are particularly exempt from this. Other exceptions, though, typically derive from other sound changes which resulted in a voiced consonant left in word-initial position3.
②/r/ does not appear in word-initial position.
③During compound word formation, various sound changes occur – see 連濁 and 露出形・被覆形.
The best method of determining that a Japanese word is Japonic is by seeing whether the same word appears as a cognate in a sister language.
| Meaning | Japanese | Okinawan (沖縄語) | Amami (奄美語) |
| Chest | [mɯne] | [ɴni] | [munɨ̞] |
| Blood | [tɕi] | [tɕiː] | [tʃiː] |
| Fog | [kiɾi] | [tɕiɾi] | [kiɺ̠i] |
| Rain | [ame] | [ʔami] | [ʔamɨ̞] |
Over the past century, many words which were thought to be native to Japanese are now being postulated as ancient borrowings from surrounding languages.
| Word | Meaning | Source Language |
| 馬（うま） | Horse | Old Chinese |
| 梅（うめ） | Japanese apricot | Old Chinese |
| クズリ | Wolverine | Nivkh |
| 蝦夷（えぞ） | Non-Yamato peoples of Northern Japan | Ainu |
Sino-Japanese Words 漢語
Sino-Japanese words (漢語) derive from Chinese roots which entered Japanese via the importing of Kanji and their ON readings4. They comprise nearly 70% of all Japanese words. Although their presence is most prevalent in the written language, they still comprise roughly 30% of words used in the spoken language.
| Word | Meaning |
| 天気（テンキ） | Weather |
| 睡眠（スイミン） | Sleep |
| 才覚（サイカク） | Wit |
| 皇后（コウゴウ） | Empress |
| 魔（マ） | Evil spirit |
Japanese-made Sino-Japanese Words
和製漢語
In the 1800s, Japan sought to Westernize itself to become an Asian global power. In doing so, many words needed to be coined to represent concepts which had up to that point not been integrated into Japanese society. Though it is often now the case that new words are coined from loanwords, primarily from English, at this time, it was more common to coin words with already available Sino-Japanese roots. These words are known as Japanese-made Sino-Japanese words (和製漢語).
| Word | Meaning |
| 自然（シゼン） | Environment |
| 電話（デンワ） | Telephone |
| 科学（カガク） | Science |
| 皮膚（ヒフ） | Dermis |
Some Sino-Japanese words made in Japan even correspond to unique Japanese items. Many of these words were coined before Westernization.
| Word | Meaning |
| 漫画（マンガ） | Manga |
| 柔道（ジュウドウ） | Judo |
| 東京（トウキョウ） | Tokyo |
| 和紙（ワシ） | Japanese paper |
| 銭湯（セントウ） | Public bath |
| 碁（ゴ） | The game of Go |
| 抹茶（マッチャ） | Matcha |
| 剣道（ケンドウ） | Kendo |
| 芸者（ゲイシャ） | Geisha |
| 大名（ダイミョウ） | Daimyo |
| 道場（ドウジョウ） | Dojo |
| 俳句（ハイク） | Haiku |
| 神道（シントウ） | Shinto |
| 将軍（ショウグン） | Shogun |
Japanese Syntax → Chinese Syntax
Many Sino-Japanese words are the product of rearranging the Kanji used in a native word to fit Chinese syntax and then rendering said word with ON readings to produce a new Sino-Japanese word.
| Meaning | Native | Reading | Sino-Japanese | Reading |
| Reply | 返り事 | かえりごと | 返事 | ヘンジ |
| To get angry | 腹が立つ | はらがたつ | 立腹 | リップク |
| Ninja | 忍び者 | しのびもの | 忍者 | ニンジャ |
| Fire breakout | 火が出る | ひがでる | 出火 | シュッカ |
| Seppuku | 腹切り | はらきり | 切腹 | セップク |
重箱読み & 湯桶読み
There are also instances of Sino-Japanese roots mixing with native roots to create compound words of mixed etymology. When the first element is Sino-Japanese but the second element is native, the resulting reading of the word is known as a 重箱読み; when the first element is native but the second element is Sino-Japanese, the resulting reading of the word is known as a 湯桶読み.
| Word | Meaning | 重箱・湯桶 |
| 縁側 | エンがわ | External corridor |
| 蛇口 | ジャぐち | Faucet |
| 役割 | ヤクわり | Role |
| 両脇 | リョウわき | Both sides |
| 無傷 | ムきず | Uninjured |
| 豚肉 | ぶたニク | Pork |
| 油絵 | あぶらエ | Oil painting |
| 梅酒 | うめシュ | Ume liqueur |
| 割勘 | わりカン | Splitting the bill |
| 目線 | めセン | Point of view |
Foreign-Origin Words 外来語
Words of foreign-origin, also known as loanwords, are known as 外来語. Although in a broad sense, Sino-Japanese words count as 外来語, the term is usually reserved to loanwords not composed of Sino-Japanese roots.
外来語 enter Japanese largely to express concepts without Japanese equivalents, or if an equivalent does exist, the loanword provides a nuancing deemed harder to come by. Some examples such as アニメ (anime) have since returned to the source language with an altered meaning.
Common languages where 外来語 may arrive include French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Dutch, and several primarily Indo-European languages. There are even some 外来語 from modern Chinese dialects. At times, 外来語 exhibit mixed etymology (ex. karaoke カラオケ5), and there are even instances of foreign morphemes being used in uniquely Japanese ways known as Japanese-made English (和製英語)6.
外来語 are primarily nouns, but a small handful have been nativized enough to incorporate native Japanese inflection morphology such as ～する to be used as verbs or ～な to be used as adjectives.
外来語 are primarily written in Katakana, but older examples may also have Kanji spellings. In rare cases, the Kanji spelling may be the predominant spelling – ex. 刹那 (moment) which is a loan from Sanskrit. Occasionally, spelling may be inconsistent due to attempts of mimicking the pronunciation of the source language while also approximating the word to fit the norms of Japanese phonology. For instance, with スマートフォン・スマートホン (smartphone), the first spelling is closer to how “smartphone” is pronounced in English, but the latter spelling is the better representation of how the word is pronounced in Japanese.
| Word | Original Word | Meaning | Source Language |
| アベック | Avec | Romantic couple | French |
| アイドル | Idol | Pop star | English |
| アイス（クリーム） | Ice cream | Ice cream | English |
| アイゼン | Steigeisen | Climbing irons | German |
| アニメ | Animation | Anime | English |
| アンケート | Enquête | Questionnaire | French |
| アンニュイ | Ennui | Ennui | French |
| アップ | Upgrade | Upgrade | English |
| アロエ | Aloë | Aloe | Dutch |
| アルバイト | Arbeit | Part-time job | German |
| アルコール | Alcohol | Alcohol | Dutch |
| バイク | Bike | Motorcycle | English |
| バスケ | Basketball | Basketball | English |
| バター | Butter | Butter | English |
| ビル | Building | Multi-floor building | English |
| ビール 麦酒 | Bier | Beer | Dutch |
| ボンベ | Bombe | Steel canister | German |
| ボールペン | Ballpoint pen | Ballpoint pen | English |
| ボタン | Botão | Button | Portuguese |
| ブランコ | Balanço | Swing | Portuguese |
| チンキ | Tinktuur | Tincture | Dutch |
| ダブル | Double | Double | English |
| デパート | Department store | Department store | English |
| ドラマ | Drama | TV drama | English |
| エアコン | Air conditioning | Air conditioning | English |
| エキス | Extract | Extract | Dutch |
| エネルギ | Energie | Energy | German |
| エレベター | Elevator | Elevator | English |
| エロ | Eros | Erotic | English |
| エステ | Esthétique | Beauty salon | French |
| フロント | Front desk | Front desk | English |
| ガラス | Glas | Glass | Dutch |
| ガーゼ | Gaze | Gauze | German |
| ゴム | Gom | Rubber | Dutch |
| グラス | Glass | Drinking glass | English |
| グロ | Grotesque | Grotesque | English |
| ハンカチ | Handkerchief | Handkerchief | English |
| ハンスト | Hunger strike | Hunger strike | English |
| ホルモン | Hormon | Hormone | German |
| ホース | Hoos | Hose | Dutch |
| ホーム | Platform | Railway platform | English |
| イエス | Jesus | Jesus | Portuguese |
| イクラ | икра | Salmon roe | Russian |
| イメージ | Image | Image | English |
| インフレ | Inflation | Inflation | English |
| イラスト | Illustration | Illustration | English |
| イヤホン | Earphone | Earphone | English |
| ジュース | Juice | Juice; soft drink | English |
| カメラ | Camera | Camera | English |
| 合羽 | Capa de chuva | Rain coat | Portuguese |
| カラン | Kraan | Faucet | Dutch |
| コーヒー 珈琲 | Koffie | Coffee | Dutch |
| コップ | Copo | A glass | Portuguese |
| クラブ 倶楽部 | Club | Club | English |
| マージャン 麻雀 | 麻雀 | Mahjong | Mandarin Chinese |
| メール | English | ||
| ミルク | Milk | Milk | English |
| モテル | Motel | Motel | English |
| ノルマ | норма | Quota | Russian |
| ノート | Note | Notebook | English |
| OL | Office lady | Female office worker | English |
| パン | Pão/pan | Bread | Portuguese/Spanish |
| ペスト | Pest | Black Plague | German |
| ペンキ | Pek | Paint | Dutch |
| ピエロ | Pierrot | Clown | French |
| プロ | Professional | Professional | English |
| ライバル | Rival | Rival enemy | English |
| ラッコ | Rakko | Sea otter | Ainu |
| レントゲン | Röntgen | X-ray | German |
| リモコン | Remote control | Remote control | English |
| リンク | Link | Link | English |
| ロードショー | Road show | Premiere | English |
| ロマン | Roman | Novel | French |
| リュックサック | Rucksack | Backpack | German |
| サービス | Service | Service | English |
| サボる | Sabotage | To slack off | French |
| サンドイッチ | Sandwich | Sandwich | English |
| サラダ | Salada | Salad | Portuguese |
| セレブ | Celebrity | Rich person | English |
| 刹那 | Ksana | Moment | Sanskrit |
| ソフト | Software | Software | English |
| ストーブ | Stove | Space heater | English |
| タバコ 煙草 | Tabaco | Tobacco | Portuguese |
| テーマ | Thema | Theme | German |
| テレビ | Television | Television | English |
| トイレ | Toilet | Toilet | English |
| トナカイ | Tunakkay | Reindeer | Ainu |
| トランプ | Trump | Playing cards | English |
| ワンピース | One piece | Single piece dress | English |
| ワープロ | Word processor | Word processor | English |
| ヨード | Jod | Iodine | German |
| ズボン | Jupon | Pants | French |
Modern Chinese Loanwords
現代中国語由来の外来語
Newer readings from Chinese keep coming in from modern Chinese languages. Such words often involve food and cultural items.
皮蛋（ピータン）はガチョウの卵を灰で包んだ保存食である。
Pi dan is a preserved food of goose egg wrapped in ash.
搾菜（ザーサイ）は中国料理の漬物です。
Szechuan pickles is a pickled food in Chinese cuisine.
餃子（ギョーザ）はとてもおいしいですね。
Gyoza is really delicious, isn’t it?
| Typical Spelling | 漢字 Spelling | Meaning |
| メンマ | 麺媽 | Lactate-fermented bamboo shoots |
| ラー油 | 辣油 | Chinese red chili oil |
| リーチ | 立直 | One tile away from winning in mahjong |
| ワンタン | 雲呑 | Wonton |
- Both 和語・倭語 and 大和言葉 may alternatively be used to refer to the Japanese language as a whole. ↩︎
- Comparative linguistics – the study of the relationships between two or more languages to discover whether they have a common ancestor – applied to words believed to be of Japanese origin allows us to safely presume whether a word is truly Japonic to an extent. However, words borrowed into the language before the dawn of the common ancestral language of Japanese may not necessarily be distinguishable from non-loanwords, as their origin may have been lost to history. ↩︎
- An example of this is 薔薇（ばら）: /mubaɾa/ > /ubaɾa/ > /ibaɾa/ > /baɾa/. ↩︎
- Not all words written with ON readings are of Sino-Japanese origin. Whenever any reading of Kanji, ON or KUN, is used for only its phonetic value, that spelling is known as ateji, and one must seek other avenues to determine the word’s origin. ↩︎
- カラオケ is the combination of 空（から） meaning “empty” and オケ from “orchestra.” ↩︎
- Not all examples of foreign morphemes being used in unique ways not seen in the source language come from English. However, in practical terms, all such words are labeled as 和製英語. ↩︎