Reduplication: Nouns

Reduplication: Nouns

Reduplication (畳語) is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word is repeated exactly or with minimal change. In the case of Japanese, reduplication triggers 連濁 to occur whenever the criteria for this phonological process are met. Meaning, some instances of reduplication result in the exact repetition of the morpheme involved, while others involve the voicing of the first mora of the repeated segment.

i. 度々たびたび
Repeatedly

ii. 星々ほしぼし
The stars


Reduplication is present to varying degrees across most parts of speech in Japanese, and with nominal roots, it plays two distinct purposes:

1. To create “indefinite collective nouns.”
2. To reference each “individual” collectively but separately—”each and every.”

For instance, consider the following:

iii. 山
Mountain(s)

iv. 山々やまやま
Many mountains

While grammatical number may not be marked on nouns in Japanese, reduplication serves as a means of demonstrating “plurality” but with heavy emphasis on the indefinite, collective nature of the referents.

v. 月
Month(s)

vi. 月々
(Each and) every month=monthly=month by month

vii. ヨーロッパの国々
The nations of Europe=each and every nation in Europe

When reduplicated, temporal nouns heavily stilt toward the individuality of each referent. While this may be the case for other kinds of nouns such as those pertaining to places (vii.), whether the speaker is distinctly envisioning the places individually or collectively may waver, although the practical difference may be negligible, as is the case in vii.

As useful as reduplication may seem, it is only viable for a limited number of nouns, the overwhelming of them being native in origin, though there are a handful instances of Sino-Japanese nouns exhibiting reduplication. Moreover, some instances are hardly used in the spoken language at all, which further begs the question as to what sort of restrictions reduplication has on a grammatical level.

The Plurality Behind Reduplicated Forms

In English, all nouns except “mass nouns,” which represent substances, abstract concepts, or groups that cannot be counted individually, possess plural forms. Meaning, nouns such as “sand,” “luck,” “money,” etc. cannot be pluralized. Similarly, all such nouns in Japanese cannot be “pluralized” via reduplication.

viii. 砂 〇 砂々 X
Sand

Japanese extends this notion of “lack of individuality” to be a key factor in the blocking of reduplication, even if the corresponding noun in English may still have a plural form. For instance, the following reduplications are not attested in Japanese.

ix. 雲々 X
Intended Meaning: Clouds

x. 魚々 X
Intended Meaning: Fishes

Even if a reduplicated noun does exist in the Japanese lexicon, the lack of individuality can drastically reduce its likelihood of being used in the spoken languages. For instance, 岡々 (hills) and 峰々 (peaks) are rarely encountered.

In addition to “lack of individuality,” assigning a set number to a reduplicated noun is not grammatical.

xi. 人々
People

xii. 三人の人々 X
xii’. 三人の人 〇
Intended Meaning: Three people

The Use of 々

The ditto character 々 is used to represent the repeated morae, and its use is standard for all instances of reduplication involving single-kanji spellings. For the rare instances of reduplication which involve two-kanji spellings of the root noun, either the doubling of 々 or the full repetition of the kanji themselves may be allowed, with the latter being the preferred means.

xiii. 島々しまじま
Many islands

xiv. 交代交代こうたいごうたい
xiv’. 交代々々
Shift after shift

Part of Speech Transformation via Reduplication

Though reduplication is only possible for a finite number of nouns, a good number of them are quirky, with some reduplicated nouns behaving as adverbial nouns—especially those that are temporal in nature (vi)—or taking on some sort of idiomatic meaning that is removed from its non-reduplicated form’s original meaning.

xv. 時
Time

xvi. 時々
Sometimes

xvii. 色
Color

xix. 色々
In various ways

Examples

Ultimately, encountering instances of reduplication is the best way to internalize which nouns can possess this additional form.

1. 30さんじゅっヶか国以上こくいじょうの人々ひとびとに意見いけんを調査ちょうさしました。
(I/we) have investigated the opinions of (many) people from over thirty nations.

2. 日本にほんの山々やまやまを楽たのしみましょう。
Enjoy the many mountains of Japan.

3. アフリカの国々くにぐにまでもが中国ちゅうごくに依存いそんしている。
As far as the nations of Africa are dependent on China.

4. 古代こだいのギリシャ人じんは、ゼウスをはじめ、多おおくの神々かみがみを崇あがめていたといわれている。
It is said that the ancient Greeks, not only worshiped Zeus, but they also worshiped many other gods.

5. 広大こうだいな宇宙うちゅうに散ちらばる、数かぞえ切きれないほどの星々ほしぼしへ旅立たびだちましょう。
Let’s embark on exploring the countless stars scattered in our grand universe.

6. ここ数日すうじつ、交代交代こうたいごうたいで休やすみなく作業さぎょうを続つづけていました。
For these past few day, I have been doing work without break shift after shift.

7. 南太平洋みなみたいへいようの島々しまじまに旅行りょこうしてみたいと思おもいます。
I’d like to travel the many islands of the South Pacific.

8. 我々われわれはどこから来きたのか、我々¹は何者なにものか、我はどこへ行いくのか。
Where did we come from, what are we, and where are we going?

9. 足あしを運はこんでくださった方々かたがた、誠まことにありがとうございました。
To all those who turned out, (I/we) sincerely thank you.

11. トルコ各地かくちの町々まちまちを訪たずねました。　
I visited the many towns across Turkey.

12. 換気口かんきこうが所々ところどころに設置せっちされている。
Vents are installed here and there.

13. 街路樹がいろじゅの木々きぎが色いろづいて綺麗きれいですね。
The many roadside trees have turned colors and are lovely.

14. 世界せかいの隅々すみずみまで貨物かもつを運はこぶ。
To transport cargo to the corners of the world.

15. 一年いちねんを通とおして季節きせつの花々はなばなを栽培さいばいしています。
(I/we) cultivate the various flowers of the seasons throughout the year.

16. 彼かれらは皆みなそれぞれの意見いけんを持もっています。
They all each have their own opinions.

17. 学生各々²が楽たのしみながら日本語にほんごの会話力かいわりょくを高たかめている。
Each and every student is increasing their conversation skills in Japanese while having fun.

18. 銘々めいめいが弁当べんとうを持参じさんしてください。
May each please bring his own bento.

19. アイドルグループの○○の面々³重傷！
Each Member of Pop Group ## Severely Injured!

20. 手作てづくりの品々しなじなが揃そろっている。
Various handmade goods are lined up.

21. 風邪かぜで節々ふしぶしが痛いたむのはなぜでしょうか。
Why do all your joints hurt when you have a cold?

22. 蓼たで食くう虫むしも好すき好ずき⁴。
Some prefer nettles/every man has his taste.
Literal Meaning: Even knotweed-eating bugs have their tastes.

23. 次つぎは誰々だれだれです。
Next is so-and-so.

24. 皮肉ひにくなことに、群馬県ぐんまけんの村々むらむらには、四六時中しろくじじゅうムラムラ⁵している村民そんみんが多おおいらしい。
Ironically, it seems that there are many villagers that are horny around the clock in the villages of Gunma Prefecture.

25. 蝶々⁶が虫むしなのに嫌きらわれないのはなぜでしょうか。
Why is it that butterflies aren’t hated although they’re bugs?

26. 行いったことのない寺々てらでらに参拝さんぱいに出でかける。
To go out to pay homage to the many temples one has never gone to.

27. お手手⁷、頂戴ちょうだい。
Give me your hand(s)/paw(s).

28. 雪ゆきが来きた。谷々たにだには三月さんがつの余よも深ふかく埋うもれた。
The snow came. The valleys were deeply buried in it past March.
From 『岩石の間』 by 島崎藤村.

29. 私わたくしはほかの穴あなを注意ちゅういして見みた。そしてそれらの穴々⁸が、いつの間まにか次々つぎつぎに塗ぬり固かためられて行いっているのを見みた。
I looked cautiously at the other holes, and then I watched as one after another of those holes coated over before I knew it.
From 『ジガ蜂』by 島木健作.

30. 私わたしを信しんじる者ものは、聖書せいしょが言いっているように、その人ひとから生いける水みずの川々かわがわが流ながれ出でるであろう。
Whoever believes in me, as Scripture has said, rivers of living water will flow from him.
From John 7:38

31. 幸しあわせな日々ひびを過すごす。
To live out happy days.

32. 展望台てんぼうだいから四季折々しきおりおりの美うつくしさを堪能たんのうできます。
You can enjoy the beauty of the seasons from season to season from the observation deck.

33. 鹿しかも折々おりおり見みかけるが、カモシカは珍めずらしい。
Although I occasionally spot deer as well, wild goats are rare.

34. 時々ときどき、コンロの火ひがつかない。
Sometimes, the gas burner doesn’t light.

35. 頭金あたまきんゼロで月々つきづき3さん万円台まんえんだいの支払しはらいで購入こうにゅうできます。
You can purchase with monthly payments in the 30,000 yen range with zero down payment.

36. 年々ねんねん、需要じゅようが増加ぞうかしている。
Demand is increasing yearly.

37. 共同きょうどうで買かった土地とちを売うったお金かねを半々はんはんに分わけたことを後々のちのち揉もめないように書面しょめんに残のこしたいと思おもっています。
I would like to leave in writing that the money from selling land I hand jointly bought (with someone) was split in half so that we don’t have a dispute in the distant future.

38. その町まちの人達ひとたちは先祖せんぞ代々だいだい受うけ継つがれてきた方言ほうげんを自みずから葬ほうむり去さったのだ。
The people of that town had buried their dialect, which had been passed down from the ancestors generation to generation, on their own.

39. 前々まえまえから主張しゅちょうしているように明あきらかに間違まちがっているんです。
Just as I have asserted from way before, it’s clearly mistaken/wrong.

40. 先々さきざきのことを考えると不安ふあんになります。
Whenever I think about what will be way down the line, I get anxious.

41. 本人達の希望により内々⁹で式を挙げた、と人づてに聞きました。
I heard they the grapevine that they held a private ceremony at their own request.

42. 数々のスキャンダルに見舞われた。
(They) were beset by numerous scandals.


【参照】
現代日本語における畳語について―数概念からみた畳語― by 田村康男

1. 我々 is an example of a reduplicated form being more common than its non-reduplicated counterpart. 我・吾 is the original first-person pronoun in Japanese, and it is still employed whenever archaic speech is appropriate as well as in set phrases such as 我先に (rushing to be first). As opposed to other options for first-person plural, 我々 is stiffer and more literary in tone, and it is predominantly used by men in formal settings. ↩︎
2. おの could once stand alone as a singular means of referring to “oneself/itself,” later being adapted to only appearing as 己, which later became adapted as a derogatory second person pronoun. On the grounds of Japanese etymology, 己 → 各々 seems fairly irregular, but this is a matter of Japanese word formation being mapped onto characters designed for the Chinese languages. ↩︎
3. 面々 also means “each one (of you,” but it is rather indifferent as far as tonality is concerned, largely considered inappropriate for polite/honorific speech registers. ↩︎
4. While 好き can be viewed as an adjectival noun, it may also be viewed as a noun meaning “like(s),” especially in the case of its reduplication. ↩︎
5. 村々 is only seldom used in the written language due to it being homophonous with the very common onomatopoeic expression ムラムラする meaning “to be horny.” Onomatopoeic expressions themselves happen to be great instances of reduplication in Japanese, but they will be left for a future topic of discussion. ↩︎
6. 蝶々 can oddly refer to “a butterfly” or “(many) butterflies,” having ironically lost its sense of plurality via reduplication. ↩︎
7. お手手 is a euphemism for “hand(s)/paw(s)” that is used toward young children and pets. ↩︎
8. Typically, 穴 would not be reduplicated due to the lack of individuality sensed my holes, but because the context here capitalizes on the individuality of the holes in question, its reduplication consequently becomes justified. ↩︎
9. 内 as a standalone noun may refer to “one’s ingroup,” and via its reduplication, it may be used in the adverbial expression 内々で which roughly translates to “in private/kept in one’s inner circle.” ↩︎