送り仮名
送り仮名 in its simplest understanding is kana used for the purpose of indicating inflection or for the purpose of disambiguating words. Yet, as straightforward as these two purposes may seem, how 送り仮名 is implemented on a case-by-case basis is not fully set in stone.
Native speakers generally display some degree of inconsistency in their own writing as for how they themselves reflect 送り仮名 in their writing. Especially with the invent of Twitter and other social media services which limit character count, that has become a growing factor which seems to undermine standardization.
What is 送り仮名?
Given how every Kanji has multiple readings, affixing kana to them to at least indicate inflection or disambiguate Kanji with multiple native words applied to them has become a necessity. As for the words shown below, the 送り仮名 used to tell which word is intended are in bold.
| Word | Meaning |
| 生（い）きる | To live |
| 生（は）える | To sprout |
| 生（う）む | To give birth/yield |
| 生（む）す | To grow (moss) |
| 生（な）る | To bear fruit |
| 生（お）い茂る | To be overgrown |
In each of these cases, 送り仮名 serves to indicate what word is meant as well as where inflection in the word begins.
The standardization of 送り仮名 has been a goal for the government since the early days of language reform in the Meiji Period, but even when the last set of guidelines were issued in 1973, the edict stated that it was for official, government-level publications and not a mandate to the Japanese populace. Be that as it may, by investigating the rules that these guidelines did issue, we can gain a very strong understanding of how 送り仮名 is generally implemented.
Rule 1
If a word conjugates, it will have 送り仮名 affixed where inflection begins. In the case one Kanji represents a compound word, the inflection boundary for 送り仮名 begins with the second element.
| 憤（いきどお）る | To resent | 承（うけたまわ）る | To undertake |
| 書（か）く | To write | 嘆（なげ）く | To lament |
| 考（かんが）える | To think | 陥（おとしい）れる | To trick into |
| 助（たす）ける | To help | 催（もよお）す | To hold (event) |
| 荒（あら）い | Rough | 潔（いさぎよ）い | Gallant |
| 賢（かしこ）い | Wise | 濃（こ）い | Thick |
| 薄（うす）い | Thin | 主（おも）な | Main |
False Irregularities
①Adjectives which end in ～しい・じい are not, in fact, irregular, as it is /-shii/ and /-jii/ respectively being attached to the roots of the adjectives in question. This is further corroborated by how their 終止形 were ～し・じ in Classical Japanese.
①Adjectival nouns made by affixing the suffixes ～か・らか・やか to adjectival roots are not, in fact, irregular for inflection implies any affixing onto the root of a conjugatable word.
| 細（こま）かな | Detailed | 静（しず）かな | Quiet |
| 和（なごや）かな | Harmonious | 柔（やわ）らかな | Tender |
| 暖（あたた）かな | Warm | 穏（おだ）やかな | Calm |
| 健（すこ）やかな | Vigorous | 鮮（あざ）やかな | Vivid |
3: The following words are all irregular because their penultimate mora is a part of their root.
| 哀（あわ）れむ | To pity | 慈（いつく）しむ | To be affectionate to |
| 小（ちい）さい | Small | 脅（おびや）かす | To threaten |
| 危（あや）うい | Dangerous | 関（かか）わる | To be concerned with |
| 少（すく）ない | Few | 揺（ゆ）する | To shake; jolt |
| 冷（つめ）たい | Cold | 危（あぶ）ない | Dangerous |
| 新（あら）たな | New | 平（たい）らな | Flat; smooth |
Rule 2
All derivative affixation onto a root must be represented by 送り仮名.
This Rule 2 is essentially a capture-all version of Rule 1.
1. For derivations of a common verbal root, 送り仮名 begins where divergence occurs.
| Root | Derivation | Base Verb |
| /ugok-/ | 動かす (to move) (trans.) | 動く (to move) (intr.) |
| /ter-/ | 照らす (to shine on) | 照る (to shine) |
| /uk-/ | 浮かぶ (to be suspended) | 浮く (to float) |
| /katar-/ | 語らう (to recite) | 語る (to narrate) |
| /yorokob-/ | 喜ばしい (joyous) | 喜ぶ (to rejoice) |
| /kik-/ | 聞こえる (to be audible) | 聞く (to listen to) |
| /oyob-/ | 及ぼす (to exert) | 及ぶ (to extend) |
| /tsum-/ | 積もる (to accumulate) | 積む (to stack) |
| /ok-/ | 起こる (to occur) | 起きる (to rise/get up) |
| /hiy-/ | 冷やす (to cool) | 冷える (to grow cold) |
2. For derivations of a common adjectival root, 送り仮名 begins where divergence occurs.
| Root | Derivative | Base Adjective/Adjectival Noun |
| /omo-/ | 重んずる (to honor) | 重い (heavy) |
| /kana-/ | 悲しむ (to be sad) | 悲しい (sad) |
| /tashi-/ | 確かめる (to confirm) | 確かだ (certain) |
| /taka-/ | 高らかだ (sonorous) | 高い (tall) |
3. Any suffixal inflection appended to a noun must be represented by 送り仮名.
| Noun | + Inflection |
| 汗 (sweat) | 汗ばむ (to be sweaty) |
| 春 (spring) | 春めく (to become spring-like) |
Recognized Irregularities
When no fear of being misread is deemed impossible, either via context or in light of what all possible derivations of the root word are, abbreviating 送り仮名 is permissible1.
| Word | Abbreviated 送り仮名 | Meaning |
| 浮かぶ | 浮ぶ | To be suspended |
| 聞こえる | 聞える | To be audible |
| 暮らす | 暮す | To live |
| 生まれる | 生れる | To be born |
| 捕らえる | 捕える | To capture |
| 押さえる | 押える | To pin down |
| 積もる | 積る | To accumulate |
| 落とす | 落す | To drop (trans.) |
| 変わる | 変る | To change (intr.) |
| 起こる | 起る | To occur |
| 当たる | 当る | To be hit |
In cases like 変わる and 当たる being abbreviated, context would make it clear that these intransitive forms were intended as opposed to their transitive forms 変える and 当てる. In cases like 起こる being abbreviated, context may not necessarily distinguish it from 起きる, but because the Classical Japanese form of 起きる is 起く, there has always been a convention of not abbreviating 起きる following Rules 1 and 2.
True Irregularities
Based on the principle of starting 送り仮名 wherever inflection onto a root begins, the following words would indeed be irregular.
| Root | Word |
| /kuy-/ | 悔しい (vexed) |
| /kop-/ | 恋しい (yearned for) |
The /p/ within the roots of 五段 verbs has long been dropped, but its presence can be confirmed by how said verbs were spelled in traditional Kana orthography.
Rule 3
Generally, nouns/pronouns are not accompanied with 送り仮名.
| 月 (moon) | 鳥 (bird) | 山 (mountain) | 花 (flower) | 草 (grass) |
| 男 (man) | 女 (woman) | 何 (what) | 虫 (bug) | 世界 (world) |
If, however, inflection that is verbal in nature or indicative of an obscure element attaching to said noun is present within a noun, it is generally represented by 送り仮名. Rather than being viewed as irregularities, they instead follow the very rules of when to use 送り仮名. Examples below are all considered cases that fall under this scenario.
| 勢い (vigor) | Deriving from the Classical Japanese verb 勢ふ (to be stirred up). |
| 互い (each other) | Deriving from the verb 違（たが）う (to differ). |
| 幾ら (how much) | A combination of 幾（いく） indicating unknown quantity and the suffix ～ら. |
| 一つ (one thing) | Derived from 一（ひと）(one) and the counter affix ～つ. |
| 幸せ (happiness) | Derived from 仕合わせ, which itself is the verb する (to do) and 合わせる (to join together) combined. |
| 便り (tidings) | Derived from 手 (hand) and 寄る (to draw near). |
Examples of nouns that still seem irregular appear as such due to the derivative bit not being verbal. In this case, the intent of leaving at least the last mora in 送り仮名 was to make it clear to future generations that the word in question is a compound.
| 情け (pity) | The け is clearly derived from 気; however, there are no other words which derive from the root /nasa-/ which do not also incorporate け. |
| 哀れ (sorrow) | Believed to be the combination of あ and はれ, both interjections found in Old Japanese. |
| 全て (all) | Derived from the て form of the verb 総べる; if it were spelled following the rules demonstrated so far, it ought to be rendered as 全べて. |
| 傍ら (besides) | Derived from 片 (part)＋腹 (interior). |
| 自ら (oneself) | Derived from 身つから, with 身 meaning “body,” つ being an ancient attribute marker, and から being an ancient noun/pronoun meaning “self.” |
Rule 4
As for nouns that clearly derive from verbal/adjectival morphology, it is the norm rather than the exception that the inflection which denotes it as being the nominal form should be represented by 送り仮名.
| Nominal Form | Verbal Form |
| 動き (movement) | 動く (to move) (intr.) |
| 恐れ (fear) | 恐れる (to fear) |
| 狩り (hunt) | 狩る (to hunt) |
| 答え (answer) | 答える (to answer) |
| 群れ (herd) | 群れる (to herd) |
| 重み (weight) | 重い (to be heavy) |
| 遠く (afar) | 遠い (to be far away) |
| 香り (fragrance) | 香る (to be fragrant) |
| 暑さ (“weather” heat) | 暑い (weather “hot”) |
Recognized Irregularities
The following words, all derived from verbs, do not have 送り仮名. The reasoning for this is to differentiate the purely nominal use of a nominal phrase from the 連用形 of said verbs, which is from where the purely nominal uses derive. At times, a separate Kanji is used for the purely nominal use.
| Nominal Form | Verbal Form |
| 謡 (chant) | 謡う (to chant) |
| 氷 (ice) | 凍る (to freeze) (intr.) |
| 帯 (kimono sash) | 帯びる (to wear/bear) |
| 畳 (tatami mat) | 畳む (to fold) |
| 富 (wealth) | 富む (to be wealthy) |
| 次 (next) | 次ぐ (to follow) |
| 恥 (shame) | 恥じる (to feel ashamed) |
| 光 (light) | 光る (to shine) |
| 折 (folding) | 折る (to fold) |
| 話 (talk) | 話す (to talk) |
| 煙 (smoke) | 煙る (to smolder) |
Though normally not abbreviated, there are also nominal forms derived from the 連用形 of verbs which may still have their 送り仮名 reduced/eliminated.
| Nominal Form | Verbal Form |
| 曇り → 曇 (cloudiness) | 曇る (to get cloudy) |
| 届け → 届 (report) | 届ける (to deliver) |
| 祭り → 祭 (festival) | 祭る (to deify) |
| 答え → 答 (answer) | 答える (to answer) |
| 向かい → 向い (other side) | 向かう (to face) |
Rule 5
The final mora in adverbs, non-conjugatable attributes (連体詞), and conjugations is rendered in 送り仮名.
| Word | Part of Speech | Meaning |
| 必ず | Adverb | Invariably |
| 少し | Adverb | A little |
| 全く | Adverb | Entirely |
| 最も | Adverb | Most |
| 去る | 連体詞 | Last… |
| 但し | Conjunction | However |
| 然し | Conjunction | However |
False Irregularities
Adverbs which are derived from verbal/adjectival morphology are not viewed as violations of Rule 5, for their morphology must be represented by 送り仮名 in accordance to Rules 1 and 2.
| Adverbial Form | Base Adjectival/Verbal Form |
| 併せて (collectively) | 併せる※ (to unite) |
| 至って (exceedingly) | 至る (to attain) |
| 恐らく (in all likelihood) | 恐れる (to fear) |
| 絶えず (constantly) | 絶える (to cease) |
| 努めて (diligently) | 努める (to endeavor) |
| 辛うじて (narrowly) | 辛い※ (harsh) |
※併せる is irregular for not being spelled as 併わせる.
※辛うじて ＞辛うして＞ 辛くして.
Recognized Irregularities
Recognized irregularities come into two types: those with inflection which warrant additional 送り仮名 and those which lack 送り仮名 altogether.
| Word | Meaning |
| 明くる | Following |
| 直ちに | At once |
| 若しくは | Or |
| 又 | Again/also |
Word Notes:
①明くる is the 連体形 of the Classical Japanese verb 明く meaning “for a period to begin,” which has turned into a 連体詞 in Modern Japanese. As such, it is not truly irregular because 送り仮名 begins where inflection starts.
②直ちに derives from 直路, which itself means “straight road.” The use of ち actually follows Rule 5 to indicate that the word is adverbial, but what makes the phrase adverbial is still the following mora に.
③若しくは derives from the adverb もし (if) taking on the adverbial marker ～く. Meaning, the onset of 送り仮名 still technically follows Rule 5, as the last mora of the adverb at the base of the word is still marked by 送り仮名, and the remaining morphology being represented by 送り仮名 is explained by Rule 2.
④又 is truly exceptional, as it ought to be spelled as 又た.
Rule 6
Whether 送り仮名 intervenes in compounds is determined by Rules 1-6 unless convention has it that 送り仮名 not be used (Rule 7).
Meaning, if inflection is present, what constitutes said inflection ought to be rendered in 送り仮名.
| Word | Components (Roots) | Meaning |
| 流れ込む | Verb + Verb | To flow into |
| 長引く | Adjective + Verb | To be prolonged |
| 薄暗い | Adjective + Adjective | To be dim |
| 石橋 | Noun + Noun | Stone bridge |
| 独り言 | Noun + Counter + Noun | Soliloquy |
| 先駆け | Noun + Verb | Pioneer |
| 日当たり | Noun + Verb | Exposure to the sun |
| 若返る | Adjective + Verb | To be rejuvenated |
| 売り上げ | Verb + Verb | Amount sold |
Recognized Irregularities
When the first part of a compound is adjectival/verbal, the 送り仮名 of the first element may be omitted. Furthermore, the first mora of the second element may also, at times, be omitted, if it too is adjectival/verbal.
| Word | Abbreviated 送り仮名 | Meaning |
| 書き抜く | 書抜く | To make an excerpt |
| 申し込む | 申込む | To apply for |
| 打ち合わせる | 打ち合せる 打合せる | To arrange |
| 雨上がり | 雨上り | After the rain |
| 引き換え | 引換え 引換 | Exchange |
| 呼び出し電話 | 呼出し電話 呼出電話 | Telephone number a person without a phone can be reached |
| 立ち居振る舞い | 立ち居振舞い 立ち居振舞 立居振舞 | Demeanor |
| 売り上げ | 売上げ 売上 | Amount sold |
| 落書き | 落書 | Graffiti |
If, for whatever reason, the first or second element of a compound word is not written in Kanji, 送り仮名 that would have otherwise been subject to abbreviation may no longer be abbreviated out. Of course, if the entire phrase is written in kana, no kana may be omitted.
| Word | Meaning |
| 杮落とし 杮落し こけら落とし こけら落し X | Opening of a new theatre |
| 錆止め さび止め さび止 X | Rust-proofing |
| 洗い晒し 洗いざらし | Faded from washing |
Rule 7
Compounds may lack 送り仮名 in accordance with convention.
1. Names of positions and titles:
| Word | Meaning |
| 関取 | Sekitori(-ranked sumo wrestler) |
| 頭取 | Bank president |
| 取締役 | Board member |
| 事務取扱 | Acting director |
2. Handicraft words that end in various suffixes derived from the verbs that pertain to the craft.
| Word | Meaning |
| 博多織 | Hakata cloth |
| 型絵染 | Stencil dyeing |
| 春慶塗 | Shunkei lacquerware |
| 鎌倉彫 | Kamakura-style carving |
| 備前焼 | Bizen ware |
3. Spellings that are conventional without 送り仮名 which may or may not apply to Rules 1-6. Such words will not have the option of 送り仮名 inclusion when typing.
| Word | Meaning |
| 書留 | Registered mail |
| 割引 | Discount |
| 組合 | Union |
| 切符 | Ticket |
| 踏切 | Railway crossing |
| 消印 | Postmark |
| 見積書 | Quote |
| 木立 | Thicket |
| 字引 | Dictionary |
| 番組 | TV program |
| 試合 | Match/game |
| 待合室 | Waiting room |
| 日付 | The date |
| 並木 | Row of trees |
| 物語 | Story |
| 物置 | Storage room |
| 役割 | Role |
| 場合 | Occasion/situation |
| 合図 | Signal/cue |
| 羽織 | A haori |
| 座敷 | A tatami room |
| 浮世絵 | Woodblock print |
| 敷石 | Pavement |
| 吹雪 | Blizzard |
| 雪崩 | Avalanche |
| 迷子 | Lost child |
| 行方 | Whereabouts |
| 名残 | Vestige |
| 築山 | Artificial hill |
| 時雨 | Rain shower in late fall |
| 息吹 | Breath |
- In practice, abbreviated 送り仮名 of all types is avoided in governmental documentation. ↩︎