The Parallel/Case Particle と
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the particle と, which is best known for its meaning “and” as a parallel particle First, we will learn about how it means “and” and the unique restrictions it has that its English equivalent “and” does not. Then, we will learn how it is used to mean “with” as a case particle.
The Parallel Particle と:
Noun + と + Noun (+ と): “And”
To better understand how the parallel particle と means “and” right from the start, let’s first define how conjunctions like “and” work in English and how they differ from “parallel particles” in Japanese.
In English, a conjunction is a word like “and” which can either connect clauses like in i. or connect words in the same clause like in ii.
i. I walked my dog and I took out the trash.
ii. I fed my dog and my cat.
In Japanese, parallel particles also connect words in a sentence, but that is arguably the only true commonality that they share, as each one has its own grammatical restraints and implications.
Incidentally, it is the rather limited functionality of the parallel particle と that makes it both easy to learn but also hard to remember when it is not the proper choice (until the learner has the chance to learn about all the other options).
To get started, imagine that we want to say “cat and dog.” “Cat and dog” can be viewed superficially as 猫と犬, with 猫 being N1 and 犬 being N2. In the Japanese equivalent of “there are cats and dogs,” both [N1とN2] functions as X. Meaning, [N1とN2] essentially becomes a new N1 which = X. While と can link as many nouns as needed for however many entities constitute the list you are making, once linked, the whole list functions as one big noun.
Thus, lists created via と are deemed as being complete representations of what is all being referenced1.
1. テーブルの上にリンゴとブドウがあります。
There are apples and grapes on the table.
2. 日本語のクラスにはアメリカ人と、イギリス人と、カナダ人がいます。
There are Americans, English, and Canadians in (my) Japanese class.
3. 必ず鉛筆（またはシャープペン）と消しゴムを持って来てください。
Please be certain to bring a pencil (or a mechanical pen) and an eraser.
4. ノートと教科書を持ってきてください。
Please come with your notebook and textbook(s).
5. これとそれは同じです。
This and that are the same.
6. 昼はとても暖かかったが、朝と夜はちょっと寒かった。
Afternoons were really warm, but mornings and nights were a little cold.
Historically, the parallel particle と also follows the final noun in the finite list that it creates. In modern speech, this is fairly uncommon, with it most likely appearing in the written language. When it is used, the tone of the sentence become notably formal and/or emphatic. Other particles, case particles and adverbial particles alike, may follow this final と. As such, the true pattern for this particle is: [N1とN2と].
7. はじめに神は天と地とを創造された。
In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.
8. お前と俺とは別の人間なんだぞ？
You and I are different people, you get that?
9. 個人消費の冷え込みと震災の影響とが重なった。
The decline of consumer spending and effects of the earthquake disaster overlapped.
In some set expressions like Ex. 10, it may appear that the parallel particle と can directly attach to verbs that are not nominalized.
10. 見ると聞くとは大違い。
There is a big difference between hearing and seeing.
In reality, however, nominalization does play a role, as the verb form being used in both instances is the 連体形, which historically could function as a nominalizing grammar structure. In modern speech, however, similarly constructed phrases that are not set in stone as set phrases will utilize the nominalizing particle の so that case particles may then follow.
The Parallel Particle と Is NOT A Conjunction
Consequently, the parallel particle と cannot be used at the beginning of a sentence, at least for its function as “and.” For the sense of “and” as a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence, the word そして2 or even また would be appropriate equivalents.
11a. と、夜11時に寝ました。X
11b. そして、夜11時に寝ました。〇
And/then, I went to bed at 11 PM.
そして is a contraction of そうして, and it behaves as “and” in two specific ways. It can show the resultant action/effect from the previous course of action much like how “then” is used in “then, this happened” or “then, I ended up doing this…” Or, it can be used to build on a previous description emphatically. The former nuance retains a temporal, logical chain of events, whereas the latter nuance loses this temporal sense to simply expand upon a description.
Moreover, learning how to use そして correctly incidentally conjures up contexts in which adjectival/verbal predicates need to be conjoined. To do this, we need a conjunctive particle to link each dependent clause to the main clause. Although we have not discussed it just yet, the solution to this is the て form (Lessons 33-35). For now, just pay attention to where そして shows up in the following two examples.
12. 早起きして、朝ご飯を食べて、試験を受けて、そ（う）してクラブにたどり着きました。
I woke up early, ate breakfast, took an exam, and then… I ended up at the club.
13. 破壊は哀れで悲しくて、そ（う）して美しいものだ。
Destruction is pitiable and sad, and it is also a beautiful thing.
Omitting Consecutive と
The omission of consecutive と is technically possible, but this is not so common with just two nouns. When two nouns are conjoined without the particle と, you will often see a 中黒（・） in between. In speech, however, this punctuation mark will often still be read as と.
14. アンケート用紙に年齢・性別の項目を記入してください。(Written Language)
Please fill in the age and gender fields on the questionnaire sheet.
The omission of consecutive と does become more common when three or more things are being listed. You may see several things being listed with ， (the コンマ)—usually in “AとB、C～” format —or obligatorily with ・ (中黒) if all instances of と are omitted.
In the written language, the pattern “A，BとC” is particularly treated as an English-style format as opposed to the more natural, native Japanese style in which と is, in fact, spoken in between each noun—potentially after the final noun as well. This is because it is a calque from English.
15. 住所・氏名・年齢・電話番号を記入したうえ、申し込んでください。
Please apply upon having filled in your address, name, age, and phone number.
In the written language, the omission of と in favor of ・ is done to appear concise and follow a more Western formatting. In the spoken language, coincidental dropping of と, again, is unlikely and could be written off as a slip of the tongue, and in the event of recalling many things, a subtle hint to the speaker’s mind that subsequent things being stated may not hold as much importance than if they were to actually use と each time.
と + Predicate ≠ “And”
It never hurts to remember that the most basic sentence pattern in Japanese is XはYだ3. In this most basic of patterns, the presumption is that both X and Y are nouns; however, by the very act of assigning a noun as X or Y, a lot can be said about how the nouns then behave grammatically.
The meaning of “and” only works for the parallel particle と when it occurs between nouns that all share the same role in the sentence, but it most importantly cannot conjoin multiple Y which constitute separate nominal predicates. In Ex. 16a., we see that the て form of the copula だ is used instead of と, since と is unable to combine nominal predicates together.
16a. 私は日本人と医者です X
16b. 私は日本人で医者です。〇
I am Japanese and a doctor.
“I am Japanese and a doctor” is technically a simplification of “I am Japanese and I am a doctor.” When stated this way, the phrase is revealed to be composed of two clauses, it is clear that you are actually connecting two predicate phrases, not just two simple noun phrases. If you wanted to say that “X and Y are doctors,” then the use of the parallel particle と would be valid.
This reasoning also applies to why the parallel particle と cannot be used to conjoin adjectival predicates. Regardless of what predicate type is being used, it is the て form that is used to conjoin them, not the parallel particle と.
17a. すばしっこいと茶色の狐はのろまな犬を飛び越える。 X
17b. すばしっこい茶色の狐はのろまな犬を飛び越える。〇
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
The Case Particle と after 1 Noun = “With”
As a case particle, と indicates the partner with which the agent, which is often but not always the speaker, is carrying out an action. Both the parallel particle と meaning “and” and the case particle と meaning “with” may occur in the same clause/sentence, as their syntactic environments are distinct from each other. While the parallel particle と conjoins multiple nouns into one larger noun, the case particle と attaches itself to a noun and is then followed by the predicate and/or any other complements that the predicate may have.
18. ｛両親・父と母｝と公園に行きます。
I’m going to the park with my father and mother.
19. 私は父と電話で話しました。
I talked with my father on the telephone.
20. 彼氏と一緒に宿題をした。
I did homework together with my boyfriend.
21. 彼は恐怖と戦って、ついに勝った。
He fought against his fears, and he finally won.
22a. 犬と散歩に出かけた。
22b. 犬の散歩に出かけた。
I went out on a walk with my dog.
Nuance Note: Both 22a and 22b are grammatical, but 22a sounds as if you are elevating the dog to the same level of importance as yourself, whereas 22b means that you are simply taking the dog out for its walk.
23. 友達と会う。
To meet with a friend.
Grammar Note: と会う shows that both sides move (to see one another) while に会う shows that only one party moves, thus leading to meeting the person. Due to this discrepancy, for “to happen to meet someone/encounter someone,” you can see X｛と・に｝ばったり（と）[会う・出会う].
This use of the case particle と may be used with adverbs meaning “together” to form the equivalent of “together with,” resulting in と一緒に and と共に4. Of the two, the latter is more formal. With either phrase, they must not be viewed as extended versions of と itself as is exemplified in Ex. 27.
24. 彼らは敵と一緒に戦っていた。
They fought mutually with the enemy.
25. 彼らは敵と戦っていた。
They were fighting with/against the enemy.
26. あたしは日の出とともに起きます。（Feminine)
I rise with the sun.
27a. 宏と花子は結婚する。〇
27b. 宏は花子と一緒に結婚する。X5
Intended: Hiroshi and Hanako will marry (each other).
27c. 宏と花子は同時に結婚する。〇
Hiroshi and Hanako will marry simultaneously.
Both 一緒に and 共に may be used independently of the particle と in the same way “together/jointly” can be used without “with,” but it is important to view them as adverbs to understand the surrounding grammar and, again, not as an extension of the particle と. In fact, just as “with X” is often dropped when using “together” in English, the same can be said about Xと with these adverbs in Japanese.
28. 同じ羽の鳥は一緒に集まる。
Birds of a feather flock together.
29. （私と）一緒に来ませんか。
Won’t you come with me?
30. （彼と）食事をともにした。
I had/shared dinner (with him).
31a. 誰かと悲しみを共にすることはおかしなことではない。(Lyrical/poetic)
31b. 誰かと悲しみを共有することはおかしなことではない。(Normal)
It is not strange to share sadness with someone.
Comparisons
The case particle と may also denote comparison and contrast, which stems from its meaning of “with,” with which it shares this commonality with the English word.
32. Xと比べる。
To compare with X.
33. 彼と同じ考えです。
That is the same idea as his.
This facet of the case particle と will be revisited.
- Incomplete lists, those in which other referents are implied, are not formed with the parallel particle と. Instead, this role is filled with the particle や. ↩︎
- Incidentally, there does exist the conjunctive phrase それと, which does translate as “and then/in addition to that.”
Ex. それと、忘れてた！ジプロックもよろしく！
And then, I almost forgot! Get Ziplock bags too! ↩︎ - This is in reference to the surface structure of basic sentences and should not be misconstrued for the deep sentence structure of basic sentences. Given that the use of the topic particle は by nature superimposes context as part of basic discourse, it may be tempting to confuse the two. However, topic markers by nature cause the ellipsis of the subject marker が. ↩︎
- 共に has a far more lyrical, formal tone than 一緒に, which explains its use in Exs. 26 and 31 but not the other surrounding examples. ↩︎
- ～と一緒に necessitates that the predicate take multiple agents to accomplish it, but marriage combines the agents (=doers=people getting married) into one unit, rendering 一緒に with no role but to seemingly conflict with the concept of marriage itself. ↩︎