Kanji Intro II　漢字入門②

Intro to Kanji II: Reading Kanji　
漢字カンジの読よみ方かた

Previously, we explored the seven types of radicals that are used to categorize kanji. Now, we will dive into the different kinds of kanji and how their classifications impact the way individual kanji are read and understood.

The 4 Kinds of Kanji　　
四種類よんシュルイの漢字カンジの成なり立たち

In ancient China, kanji began as pictographic representations of the world around us. Over time, kanji evolved into a system of thousands of glyphs to write the morphemes of Chinese languages. Centuries later, they were adopted into Japanese. Upon being adopted into Japanese, kanji have changed in sound and occasionally appearance, but little has changed to their core composition.

All kanji fall under one or more of the following four¹ types:

1. Pictograms  
2. Ideograms
3. Compound Ideograms
4. Semasio-Phonetic Characters 

Let’s begin with pictograms, as these characters represent the origins of kanji.

Pictograms　
象形文字ショウケイモジ

Pictographic kanji are the direct descendants of ancient depictions. While modern versions are more stylized compared to their original forms, many still closely resemble the objects or concepts they represent.

日	月	山	鳥	木
sun	moon	mountain	bird	tree
魚	川	貝	口	龍
fish	river	shellfish	mouth	dragon

Ideograms　
指事文字シジモジ

While pictograms depict concrete entities, ideograms represent abstract concepts. Despite their abstract nature, ideograms remain fundamentally pictographic.

一	二	三	上	下
one	two	three	up	down
天	今	母	音	立
heaven	now	mother	sound	standing

Compound Ideograms　
会意文字カイイモジ

Compound ideograms are the logical next step after simple ideograms. As implied by the name, they are created by combining radicals together to express a more complex meaning. Generally speaking, only one component is chosen for the radical of the character for categorical purposes, but each component for these characters is markedly semantic by nature.

林	森	炎	明	信
woods	forest	flame	bright	believe
tree + tree	tree + tree + tree	fire + fire	sun + moon	person + word
死	比	光	男	休
death	compare	light	man	rest
bones + person	person + person	fire + person	rice field + strength	person + tree

Semasio-Phonetic　
形声文字ケイセイモジ

The previous types of characters only make up roughly 15% of all kanji. For the remaining 85% (Kenneth G. Henshall 1988), not all elements of the kanji necessarily attribute to the meaning of the overall character. Typically, one or more elements contribute meaning—known as the 意符イフ—while the remaining element indicates the character’s sound—known as the 音符オンプ. These phonetic elements are in accordance with Chinese word formation, as opposed to Japanese word formation, as kanji were developed with the former in mind but not the latter.

Phonetic Elements in Action

To demonstrate what is meant by a phonetic element, let’s consider the kanji 官 meaning “bureaucracy.” It is a compound ideogram composed of a pictograph of a roof over meat for ceremonial purposes. Over time, it evolved to represent “a building where militants dwell, eventually leading to its modern meaning of “bureaucracy.”

The phonetic “reading” of 官 is カン. When 官 appears in other kanji, but those other kanji are read as カン as well, and that is because it serves as the phonetic element.

管	館2	菅	棺
pipe	building	sedge	coffin
カン	カン	カン	カン
竹 (bamboo) + 官	食 (food) + 官	艹 (grass) + 官	木 (tree) + 官

Phonetic elements generally have the same or similar pronunciation across the kanji in which they appear. When differences do occur, they are usually minor. 

Phonetic	Base Sound	Examples	Similar Sound
反	ハン	販・板・阪	返（＝ヘン）
寺	ジ	侍・持・時	詩（＝シ）

ON Readings　
音読オンよみ

The phonetic elements (音符オンプ) of kanji provide a character’s sound (字音ジオン), which contribute to their ON readings (on’yomi おんよみ), which are inherited from Sino-Japanese vocabulary—words derived from Chinese roots. Except for a few kanji created in Japan, nearly all kanji have ON readings.

ON readings were introduced to Japanese in multiple waves, along with new Kanji and meanings, throughout history. Each time, new kanji along with new readings and updated meanings of old kanji were introduced.

Unlike other languages influenced by Chinese, in which older readings were replaced over time, Japan retained these historical layers due to prolonged gaps in direct contact with China. Consequently, even the most basic kanji may have multiple readings and meanings from various eras.

The Kinds of ON Readings
音オン読よみの種類シュルイ

Let’s look at the character 行, meaning “going” or “conduct,” and explore its three ON readings: ギョウ, コウ, and アン. Each corresponds to a specific type of ON reading:

1. Wu Reading (呉音ゴオン)
   • Introduced between the 5th and 6th centuries, or even earlier in some cases, these are the oldest ON readings in Japanese. They are closely tied to Buddhist texts, to the point that some mistakenly believe they are exclusive to old or religious contexts. However, many common words still use Wu readings today.
2. Han Reading (漢音カンオン)
   • Introduced by monks and emissaries during the 7th and 8th centuries (Tang Dynasty), Han readings are the most prevalent ON readings. Almost all Chinese-made kanji have a Han reading, unlike Wu or Tang readings.
3. Tang Reading (唐音トウオン)
   • Referring to readings introduced after the 8th century, these were primarily adopted during the Song Dynasty, despite the name³. In Japanese, “Tang” (唐トウ) can denote pre-modern China rather than a specific dynasty. Tang readings are rare, with only about 100 words utilizing them.
4. Traditional Readings (慣用音カンヨウオン)
   • These readings arose from popularized mispronunciations, which in some cases have replaced older ON readings entirely. While 行 does not have a traditional reading, many kanji do.

To illustrate the three ON readings of 行, here are some examples of words that use ギョウ, コウ, and アン:

Wu Reading ギョウ	Han Reading コウ	Tang Reading アン
行列ギョウレツ queue	行進コウシン a march	行脚アンギャ pilgrimage
行間ギョウカン line-spacing	行動コウドウ action	行灯アンドン paper-covered lantern
行事ギョウジ event	銀行ギンコウ bank	行火アンカ foot warmer

Of these readings, Han readings account are most frequently encountered due to efforts throughout Japanese history to have them be used as the standard readings, but Wu readings come in second as still being prevalent. Tang readings, meanwhile, are incredibly rare.

KUN Readings　
訓クン読よみ

Initially, kanji were used for their sounds to spell Japanese words, much like kana are used today. However, it was not long before kanji began to be paired with Japanese words of the same meaning, giving rise to KUN readings (kun’yomi くんよみ). 

Characteristics of KUN Readings
訓クン読よみの特徴トクチョウ

• Like ON readings, many kanji have more than one KUN reading.
• Kanji with multiple meanings typically have a distinct KUN reading for each meaning.
• For Japanese words with complex morphology, different forms of the same word often result in additional KUN readings.

Why Both ON & KUN Readings Are Important
音訓オンクンの重要性ジュウヨウセイ

Unlike in Chinese in which a single kanji will typically correspond to one word, the same cannot be said in Japanese. Truly, each kanji is like a mosaic of etymological diversity for synonymous word elements. The biggest points to gather from how ON and KUN readings are both equally important can be summarized as follows:

• Knowing ON readings is akin to understanding Latin roots in English, as they are essential for Sino-Japanese vocabulary. The more literate you become, the more ON readings you will recognize in both speech and literature.
• Knowing KUN readings is comparable to mastering the core vocabulary used in daily conversation.

Case Study with 男 (Man)

To illustrate the relationship between ON and KUN readings, let’s examine the Kanji 男, meaning “man.” This character has:

Two KUN readings: Represented in hiragana.
Two ON readings: Represented in katakana.

ON (Wu) – ナン	ON  (Han) – ダン	KUN – おとこ	KUN – お
長男チョウナン  eldest son	男性ダンセイ male	男心おとこごころ male frivolity	男神おがみ male deity
次男ジナン  second son	男児ダンジ male child	男湯おとこゆ men’s bath	寡男やもお male widower
三男サンナン  third son	男子ダンシ young man	男前おとこまえ man’s looks/manliness	益荒男ますらお warrior
下男ゲナン  male servant	男女4ダンジョ men and women	男おとこの子こ boy	ダメ男だめお（とこ） male loser
美男5ビナン handsome man	男優ダンユウ actor	大男おおおとこ large man	康男やすお Yasuo

Choosing Between ON & KUN Readings　
音訓オンクンの使つかい分わけ

There are no absolutes when it comes to reading kanji. However, the distribution of ON and KUN readings can be used to help make the guess work easier.

Single-Kanji Words
一字イチジからなる単語タンゴの読よみ方かた

Learners are often falsely instructed that single-kanji words are read with KUN readings. While it is true that such words are often read with KUN readings, this is not a guarantee. Sometimes, ON and KUN readings of the same kanji can stand for different words in isolation⁶.

ON	KUN	ON	KUN
王オウ  king	雨あめ rain	円エン yen	蚊か mosquito
線セン line	山やま mountain	剣ケン sword(manship)	剣つるぎ (double-edged) blade
銀ギン silver	銀しろがね silver	瓶ビン bottle	戸と door/shutter
天テン heaven	国くに country	死シ death	火ひ fire
駅エキ train station	鳥とり bird	茶チャ tea	日ひ day
金キン gold	金かね money	麺メン noodles	川かわ river
点テン Point	瀬せ rapids	僕ボク I	草くさ grass
本ホン book	人ひと person	絵エ picture	子こ child
脳ノウ brain	木き tree	案アン plan	月つき moon
勘カン intuition	手て hand	例レイ example	足あし foot
字ジ character	字あざ village section	都ト Tokyo Metro	都みやこ capital

In most cases, context is sufficient to determine the correct reading of a kanji with multiple possible readings. However, there are instances where native intuition or external assistance—such as furigana (phonetic guides)—is necessary to identify which reading fits best.

Sino-Japanese Compound Words　
熟語ジュクゴの構成コウセイ

Traditionally, each kanji stands for a single morpheme in Chinese. Over time, complex words (熟語ジュクゴ) were coined by conjoining two or more morphemes (and their corresponding kanji). These compound words are exclusively read with ON readings. They can be further categorized by how the kanji are combined and the number of kanji involved.

Two-Kanji Compounds 二字熟語ニジジュクゴ

1. Combining opposite meanings
   • 進退シンタイ: “Moving forwards [進] or backwards [退].”
2. Combining similar meanings
   • 救助キュウジョ: “Relief”; 救 means “to save,” and 助 means “to help.”
3. Modifier + modified
   • 牛肉ギュウニク: “Beef”; 牛 means “cow,” and 肉 means “meat.”
4. Chinese phrases preserved intact
   • 登山トザン: “Mountain climbing”; 登 means “to climb,” and 山 means “mountain.”
   • 頭痛ズツウ: “Headache”; 頭 means “head,” and 痛 means “to hurt.”

Three-Kanji Compounds 三字熟語サンジジュクゴ

1. Affixing prefixes or suffixes to two-kanji compounds
   • 責任感セキニンカン: “Sense of responsibility,” composed of 責任 (responsibility) and ～感 (sense/feeling).
2. Preserved subject + predicate structure from Chinese
   • 心停止シンテイシ: “Cardiac arrest,” composed of 心 (heart) and 停止 (stopping).
3. Preserved verb + object structure from Chinese
   • 省資源ショウシゲン: “Saving resources,” composed of 省 (to conserve) and 資源 (resources).
4. Preserved adverb + verb structure from Chinese
   • 未曾有ミゾウ: “Unprecedented,” composed of 未 (not), 曾 (yet), and 有 (to have).
5. Stringing nouns together
   • 天地人テンチジン: “Heaven, earth, and man.”

Four-Kanji Compounds 四字熟語よジジュクゴ

1. Idiomatic expressions
   • 大胆不敵ダイタンフテキ: “Daredevil.”
2. Non-idiomatic examples
   • 政府方針セイフホウシン: “Government policy.”
   • 四苦八苦シクハック: “The four and eight kinds of suffering.”

There are even dictionaries dedicated to four-kanji idioms. They are also popular for testing language skills.

Five-Kanji Compounds 五字熟語ゴジジュクゴ

Five-kanji compounds are typically non-idiomatic, often being strings of Sino-Japanese words put together to create jargon. However, there are still idiomatic examples as well as those with mixed etymology, combining both ON and KUN readings. In addition to the composition types showcased above, those that are uniquely commonplace to five-kanji compounds include:

1. Chinese syntax kept intact (all aforementioned types possible)
   • 経済成長率ケイザイセイチョウリツ: “rate of economic growth” (Modifier + modified + suffix)
2. Kundoku expressions (superimposed Japanese sentences onto a Classical Chinese sentence, with the expression intended to serve a greater meaning)
   • 学道則愛人みちをまなべばすなわちひとをアイす: “If one learns the Way, one will care about people.”
3. Buddhist expressions
   • 阿弥陀如来アミダニョライ: “Amitabha Buddha”
4. Idiomatic expressions
   • 白髪三千丈ハクハツサンゼンジョウ: lit. “grey hair 3,000 jо̄ long” → template phrase for hyperbole used to describe “prolonged anxiety.”
5. Mixed etymology
   • 井戸端会議いどばたカイギ : lit. “well-side meeting” → “idle gossip”

More Examples of Compounds

Compounds are not limited to 1-5 kanji. As you learn more kanji and the vocabulary that goes along with them, you will often encounter expressions made up of 6(+) kanji. For now, though, the chart that follows serves to give you even more examples following the categories outlined thus far.

Two-Kanji Compounds 二字熟語	Three-Kanji Compounds  三字熟語	Four-Kanji Compounds  四字熟語	Five-Kanji Compounds  五字熟語
意味イミ meaning	殺風景サップウケイ barren	意気消沈イキショウチン disheartened	希代不思議キタイフシギ unheard-of mystery
映画エイガ movie	度外視ドガイシ overlook	一望千里イチボウセンリ boundless expanse	奇妙奇天烈キミョウキテレツ incredibly odd
英語エイゴ English	過不足カフソク too much or too little	一期一会イチゴイチエ once-in-a-lifetime encounter	五十歩百歩ゴジッポヒャッポ a miss is as good as a mile
弁当ベントウ box lunch	望遠鏡ボウエンキョウ telescope	一喜一憂イッキイチユウ unable to put one’s mind at ease	日常茶飯事ニチジョウサハンジ everyday occurrence
会社カイシャ company	第六感ダイロッカン sixth sense	一生懸命イッショウケンメイ with all one’s might	日々是好日ニチニチこれコウジツ every day is a good day
家庭カテイ household	自動車ジドウシャ automobile	一目瞭然イチモクリョウゼン obvious	言行不一致ゲンコウフィッチ inconsistency between words and actions
花瓶カビン vase	投票率トウヒョウリツ voter turnout	色即是空シキソクゼクウ all is vanity	喧嘩両成敗ケンカリョウセイバイ both parties are to blame
地震ジシン earthquake	雰囲気フンイキ ambience	諸行無常ショギョウムジョウ all things must pass	御都合主義ゴツゴウシュギ opportunism
腹痛フクツウ abdominal pain	理不尽リフジン irrational	起死回生キシカイセイ resuscitation	自転車操業ジテンシャソウギョウ hand-to-mouth operation
上下ジョウゲ top and bottom	大使館タイシカン embassy	一石二鳥イッセキニチョウ killing two birds with one stone	三方一両損サンボウイチリョウゾン sharing the pain among three parties

Native Compound Words　　
和語ワゴの複合語フクゴウゴ

Native compound words are known as 複合語フクゴウゴ. As to be expected, these words are read with KUN readings. Native compound words are usually two to three kanji long. Most examples are part of the core vocabulary of the spoken language. 

母親ははおや mother	紫色むらさきいろ purple	居間いま living room	背中せなか back	花火はなび fireworks
父親ちちおや father	友達ともだち friend	井戸端いどばた side of a well	場合ばあい situation	入口いりぐち entrance
子供こども child	八百屋やおや greengrocer	受付うけつけ reception	昼間ひるま daytime	焼魚やきざかな grilled fish
貝殻かいがら seashell	夕方ゆうがた evening	着物きもの kimono	神棚かみだな home shrine	渋谷しぶや Shibuya
建物たてもの building	雨雲あまぐも rain cloud	小鳥ことり small bird	鼻血はなぢ nosebleed	川崎かわさき Kawasaki

Mixed Origin Words　
和漢混淆語ワカンコンコウゴ

There are also compounds made by combining native and Sino-Japanese morphemes, either in the order of ON-KUN or KUN-ON.

ON-KUN Readings　
重箱読ジュウばこよみ

The word 重箱ジュウばこ means “multi-tiered food box,” and it is the source of inspiration for the Japanese term for ON-KUN compounds.

台所ダイどころ kitchen	額縁ガクぶち frame	役場ヤクば town hall
番組バンぐみ TV program	桟橋サンばし wharf	磁場ジば magnetic field
路肩ロかた road shoulder	新顔シンがお newcomer	客間キャクま guest room
残高ザンだか bank balance	頭突ズつき head-butt	蝶番チョウつがい hinge
団子ダンご dumpling	本屋ホンや book store	反物タンもの textiles

KUN-ON Readings　 
湯桶読ゆトウよみ

The word 湯桶ゆとう means “pail-like wooden container for hot liquids,” and it is the source of inspiration for the Japanese term for KUN-ON compounds.

場所ばショ place	雨具あまグ rain gear	目線めセン point of view
見本みホン specimen	梅酒うめシュ ume liqueur	高台たかダイ high ground
身分みブン social position	株券かぶケン stock certificate	手数てスウ bother
消印けしイン postmark	敷金しきキン security deposit	夕刊ゆうカン evening paper
手帳てチョウ notebook	太字ふとジ boldface	白菊しらギク white chrysanthemum

Special KUN Readings　
熟字訓ジュクジクン

Japanese words are not always structurally parallel to their Chinese counterparts. However, kanji are used primarily to represent words based on meaning. This results in etymologically irregular KUN readings.

In these cases, regardless of how a word or phrase is expressed in Chinese, the Japanese phrasing is imposed when writing it with kanji. These irregular readings are known as 熟字訓ジュクジクン.

昨日きのう yesterday	今日きょう today	明日あした・あす tomorrow
明後日あさって day after tomorrow	雪崩なだれ avalanche	煙草たばこ7 tobacco
大人おとな adult	一日ついたち first day of the month	今朝けさ this morning
一昨日おととい the day before yesterday	一昨年おととし the year before last	梅雨つゆ the rainy season
大和やまと Yamato	田舎いなか countryside	太刀たち Long sword

Okurigana　
送おくり仮名がな

Okurigana are kana affixed to stems of roots written in kanji to represent grammatical inflection.

成なる to become	歌うたう to sing	大おおきい to be big/large	静しずか to be quiet
高たかい to be tall/high	行いく to go	早はやい to be fast/early	出来できる to be able to

The amount of okurigana a word has can occasionally vary. For instance, 受け付け meaning “acceptance/receipt” can be alternatively spelled as 受付け. For the meaning of “receptionist,” it is spelled as 受付.

Furigana
振ふり仮名がな

Reading Japanese can be challenging, as evidenced by the frequent use of furigana in books. These small kana, placed above kanji in horizontal text or to the right in vertical text, indicate the intended reading of the kanji.

In practice, furigana is typically written in hiragana, as it is the default script for pronunciation aids. Katakana is rarely used, appearing only when the most appropriate reading for a word would naturally be in katakana. For instance, in this lesson, katakana has been utilized to indicate ON readings, while hiragana has been utilized to indicate KUN readings.

Ateji　
当あて字ジ

Although kanji inherently carry meaning, they are sometimes used solely for their sound. This “sound” can be based on either an ON or KUN reading. Use of kanji in this fashion is known as ateji 当て字.

亜米利加アメリカ America

出鱈目でたらめ haphazard

沢山タクサン a lot

滅茶苦茶メチャクチャ chaotic

Ateji may also alternatively refer to kanji whose readings are ignored and are only used for their meaning, which overlaps with the definition of 熟字訓.

Kokuji　
国字コクジ

Although kanji are indeed “Chinese” characters, not all of them originated in China. Several hundred kanji were created in Japan. These kanji coined in Japan are known as kokuji 国字. Interestingly, some of these characters were later adopted into Chinese.

Naturally, most kokuji have KUN readings, reflecting their Japanese origins. However, some also have ON readings, and depending on the circumstances of their creation, a few may possess only ON readings.

働	峠	颪	癪
ON: ドウ KUN: はたら(く) to work	KUN: とうげ mountain pass	KUN: おろし wind blowing down  mountains	ON: シャク peeve, spasm
鰯	畑	腺	込
KUN: いわし sardine	KUN: はた(け) crop field	ON: セン gland	KUN: こ(む) to be crowded
辻	榊	匂	鋲
KUN: つじcrossroad	KUN: さかき sacred Shinto tree	KUN: にお(う) to smell	ON:ビョウthumbtack
畠	瓩	粁8	塀
KUN: はた(け) crop field	KUN: きろぐらむ kilogram	KUN: きろめーとる kilometer	ON: ヘイ9 fence, wall

参照
A Guide to Remembering Japanese Characters by Kenneth G. Henshall (1988).

1. Traditionally, these categories are known as the 六書, indicating that there are two categories not mentioned here. These other two categories are 転注 and 仮借 are obscure and are mentioned in greater detail here. ↩︎
2. 館 can also be viewed as a compound ideogram. ↩︎
3. Tang readings may also be referred to as 唐宋音, which does reference how these readings were brought over into Japan during and after the Song Dynasty. ↩︎
4. The Wu reading for 男女 is ナンニョ, which is frequently used in the expression 老若男女 meaning “men and women of all ages.” ↩︎
5. Dictionaries also list the reading ビダン, but the use of the Han reading ダン for 男 is not commonplace for this word. However, there was a time in which intellectuals attempted to purge non-Han readings, and this word is evidence of this. ↩︎
6. At times, ON vs KUN may not result in a change in meaning. For instance, 銀 meaning “silver” possesses the ON reading ギン and the KUN reading しろがね, and both readings may indicate the meaning of “silver.” In practicality, however, しろがね is seldom used in the spoken language. Meaning, there is still a difference between the readings, just a pragmatic one. ↩︎
7. 煙草 is an example of loanwords being attributed to kanji. Whenever this happens, the reading is treated as a special KUN reading. ↩︎
8. 瓩 and 粁 were created to represent Western measurements. They are examples of ‘new’ KUN readings made from loanwords. ↩︎
9. The reading ヘイ of 塀 is listed as an ON reading because of the phonetic element used in the kanji, and believe it or not, the word is still Sino-Japanese in origin, albeit altered in both meaning and in how the kanji itself appears. ↩︎