Non-Deictic Time II: Determiners
Previously, we learned about how non-deictic time phrases are contextually understood as opposed to being related to “now” as the reference point.
1. 今、３時半です。
It’s 3:30 now.
In Ex. 1, 今 is deictic, as the speaker is establishing that that very moment—”now”—is the point of reference, but ３時半 remains non-deictic, because it will be 3:30 again, and it is the context of “now” that gives it a point of reference.
2. 授業は午後３時半に終わります。
Class ends at 3:30 PM.
Even so, deictic expressions, can often be repurposed into being non-deictic when given the right environment. In Ex. 3, we see that even 今 can undergo this deictic → non-deictic conversion when followed by the combination particle にも.
3. 今にも雨が降りそうだ。
It looks like it might rain at any moment.
The rain could happen in the next split second, but it may not ever rain at all. This nuancing shows how 今 has lost its anchoring to its point in time: “now.”
Regarding particles, deictic expressions never take the temporal に1, but they do have the potential of being topicalized with は (Ex. 4).
As for non-deictic expressions, despite being characterized as taking に, this is not always the case. In fact, several factors can prevent に from being used in tandem.
Non-deictic expressions are adverbial nouns. An oversimplification of when not to expect に in non-deictic contexts hinges on how adverbial the preceding temporal “noun” is. Let’s look at a few contingencies.
i. When a non-deictic expression modifies a noun, it is being used as a noun.
The combination にの itself is invalid; therefore, に cannot follow.
ii. Topicalizing a non-deictic expression often results in に being dropped because the particle は heightens its adverbial nature.
iii. When a deictic expression modifies a non-deictic expression, に ought not be present except when a contrast is being made with another time period (Ex. 12) or when there is a clear reference point like a date on a calendar or when telling time—Exs. 14-15.
iv. When the events of the main clause are given greater semantic weight in the sentence, に is often dropped. This is especially so when non-deictic expressions are in sentence-initial position and can be viewed as being tacked on to the more important information—Ex 13.
v. Many contexts exemplary of iii-iv may also be viewed as being formal in tone. With formal tonality, a non-deictic expression, often longer reflecting being more detailed (Ex. 13), is typically sentence-initial with a notable pause before the rest of the sentence.
vi. When the main clause describes a condition versus an action, non-deictic expressions are not used with に because they are viewed as adverbs qualifying the nature of said state of being—Ex. 5.
vii. The particle choice(s) seen in set phrases are rigid, meaning they most likely cannot be altered. So, if に is present, its grammaticality is certain—Ex. 16.
Comparison Note: English poses a similar problem to these scenarios in that “at/on/in” need not always be paired with non-deictic expressions either (Ex. 6).
Since に is not a clear indicator as to whether a time phrase is deictic or non-deictic, determiners serve as a more reliable indicator. Meaning, what corresponds to “this,” “that,” etc. will change accordingly.
4. 今週（は）、株価が下落した。(Deictic)
Stocks dropped this week.
5. ここは夜｛∅・に X｝、流れ星が見えるよ。(Non-Deictic)
You can see shooting stars here at night.
6. その次の週はどうですか？(Non-Deictic)
How about the next week after that?
7. 毎週2日曜日締めの当週水曜日払い (Non-Deictic)
Payment on Wednesday of the current week, end period being every Sunday.
8. その前の日に私達一緒にご飯食べる? (Non-Deictic)
How about we eat together the day before that?
9. 出荷の翌日に届きますか？(Non-Deictic)
Will it arrive the day after being shipped?
10. 接種した翌日は仕事を休みました。(Non-Deictic)
I took time off from work the day after I got vaccinated.
11. 接種した翌日には仕事を休みにすることも重要だ。(Non-Deictic)
It’s also important to take time off work the following day after getting vaccinated.
12a. きのうの夜、ケンタッキーを買いに行きました。
(Deictic = “yesterday night”/Non-Deictic = “at night yesterday”)
12b. きのうの夜には、ケンタッキーを買いに行きました。(Non-Deictic)
12a. I went to go get KFC [yesterday night/at night yesterday].
12b. At night yesterday, I went to go get KFC.
13. 二月十三日夕方、警察は緊急会見を開きました。(Non-Deictic)
On the evening of February 13th, the police held an emergency conference.
14. 来月の10日に新しい店舗に引越しします。(Non-Deictic)
I’ll be relocating to a new store on the 10th next month.
15. 高橋氏は今年2013年（に）亡くなりました。
(今年 = Deictic/2013年 = Non-Deictic)
Mr. Takahashi passed away in 2013, this year.
16. きのうきょう｛に 〇・∅ X｝始まったことじゃない。(Non-Deictic)
This is not a first.
きのうきょう, aside from literally meaning “yesterday and today,” may also mean, “only recently,” and here we see that latter meaning used in a negative sentence (打ち消し文); に is present to make it clear that the phrase is meant to be interpreted in a non-deictic fashion to insinuate that the greater context is beyond the points “yesterday and today.” Interestingly, 今に can be exchanged for きのうきょうに with no substantive change in meaning other than being less emphatic.
Grammatical Dilemmas
Next, we will look at various grammatical dilemmas involving phrases whose “head” component is non-deictic in which に, though a clear sign as to how a phrase ought to be interpreted, is not such a great indicator as to the temporal nature of a still non-deictic phrase when it is notably absent.
Dilemma 1: Shifting Semantic Weight in “Deictic + Non-Deictic” Expressions
When a non-deictic head phrase is modified by a deictic phrase, に appears most likely whenever the semantic weight of the overall phrase shifts to the “head.” The head component’s own non-deictic nature does not overrule the possibility that the modifier is more important in the speaker’s mind.
17a. 明日の夜、ちょっと約束があるので、行けません。
17b. 明日の夜｛は ◎｝、ちょっと約束があるので、行けません。
17c. 明日の夜｛に △｝ちょっと約束があるので、行けません。
17d. 明日の夜にはちょっと約束があるので、行けません。
17a. Tomorrow night, I’ve got this appointment set up, so I can’t go.
17b. As for tomorrow night, I’ve got this appointment set up, so I can’t go.
17c. I’ve got this appointment set up for tomorrow night, so I can’t go.
17d. I’ve got this appointment set up for tomorrow night, so I can’t go.
The purpose of the temporal function of に, ultimately, is to designate a time frame, which is why 17c-d give off the impression that whatever invitation the speaker has received overlaps with the time frame of the appointment. While に is still grammatical in 17c., we find that it is most natural with 17d to emphasize that contrast in the timing of plans between the speaker and the listener.
Dilemma 2: Topicalization VS Case Marking with Non-Deictic Expressions
If に more definitively establishes a time frame, it may seem counterintuitive that it is ever absent from non-deictic expressions, even when a deictic component is present, but topicalization alone can sufficiently open up the floor of discussion about said time frame without the time being explicitly marked with に.
18. 明日の朝は何を食べようか。
What shall we eat tomorrow morning?
Even when no deictic component is present, the same can be said about topicalization: bringing that time frame to the forefront of conversation is equal in semantic weight to designating it as the time of occurrence. As for why one scenario may be chosen over the other, let’s consider the following sentences.
19. とくに朝は何を食べたら良いのか、朝ご飯の重要性を理解できていますか？
Do you especially understand what to eat in the mornings, the importance behind breakfast?
20. 朝にはすぐにエネルギーに変換される栄養をしっかり摂ることが大事だ。
In the morning, it is important to properly intake nutrition that can be converted into energy right away.
21. 朝には、近畿地方にかなり接近しているとのことで、注意してください。
Please be careful as, in the morning, (the typhoon) will be approaching very close to the Kinki Region.
In Ex. 19, the topicalization of 朝 without に opens up the floor for discussion on morning routine, and it is readily obvious that the time frame is to remain consistent in the overall context, whereas Exs. 20-21 both designate the time frame as 朝 out of necessity to get the message across correctly, with the timing utmost crucial.
Dilemma 3: The Need to Designate Time Frame Necessitates に
When clearly defining the time frame in question is deemed necessary, に is not so easily omitted, even in situations in which it is otherwise often not present.
▽The compound particle にも: When these two particles are paired together, に is practically obligatory, but it is important to differentiate “deictic + にも” and “non-deictic + にも.”
- “Deictic + にも”: Results in a change in meaning in which the deictic expression becomes non-deictic. も behaves as an emphatic marker indicating that the nuanced time frame is well within the realm of possibility.
- “Non-deictic + にも”: The meaning of も is “also,” and similarly to how “at” or “on” may not be omitted in “also [at/on]” in English, the same can be said for に. Meaning, に is practically obligatory in this environment. When に does happen to be dropped, it takes on the meaning of “in spite of/even.”
First, let’s compare Ex. 22 with Ex. 23. In Ex. 22, も is akin to “in spite of/even,” being very similar to ～でも and ～けれども in meaning. In Ex. 23, though, it retains its typical meaning of “also/even/too.”
22. 送検された教師の男は、事件の翌日も通常通り出勤していたことがわかった。
It came to light that the male teacher, who had been committed for trial, had gone to work as per usual in spite of it being the day following the case (he was involved in).
23. 事件翌日にも似たような事件が発生しており、同署が関連を調べている。
A similar incident also occurred the day following (this) incident, and the aforementioned police department is investigating any relationship (between them).
Next, let’s look at another situation, but this time, “deictic + にも” itself is erroneous from the onset.
24. 正確には今夜ですが、昨夜【にも△・も◎】流れ星をパラパラと見られてはいたはずです。
Though technically tonight, (you) should have been able to sporadically see shooting stars last evening.
Deictic expressions whose placement in time is in the past are not so commonly utilized in a non-deictic light as in Ex. 24, both because deictic expressions are already definitively anchored to specific points in time and because the past has already taken place and can be readily defined as having occurred in said moment. Yet, the speaker here has, nonetheless, phrased 昨夜 in a non-deictic light. In doing so, the speaker is not definitively stating that the event did occur then, but that it had a good chance of happening, refraining from speaking in absolutes. Although, without に, that is precisely what the speaker would be doing.
Particle Note: Just as the に in にも is not always temporal in nature, the temporal nature of に when combined with time expressions is contingent on the kind of time expression used. Meaning, きょうにも (a deictic expression) cannot be viewed in the same light as ３時にも (a non-deictic expression).
▽翌・当～: Non-deictic expressions made with these two prefixes are notably often not used with the temporal に, but it is highly common when also paired with the emphatic も.
25. 前の晩（に）ラーメンや肉料理を食べると、翌朝にも残っていることはありませんか。
Have you ever had ramen or meat dishes the previous evening and still had (a hangover) the following morning?
In Ex. 25, there are two temporal expressions: 前の晩（に）and 翌朝にも. The first, 前の晩（に）, is a typical non-deictic expression meaning “the previous evening.” The exact evening referred to would be the last time it was the listener had had leftovers from some prior night that they were hammered. As for 翌朝にも, it is non-deictic because “the following morning” is only understood by the circumstance being referenced, as opposed to being anchored to “now.” Now, as for why に is omissible from 前の晩, this is in line with tonality adjustment on top of raising the phrase [前の晩] to the front of the sentence being akin to topicalization.
｛この・その・あの｝前の～
In deictic terminology, there is no need to use “this/that” in conjunction with the main determiner “prior/last” because of how the timeline is anchored to “now” as the point of reference. In non-deictic terminology, though, the speaker has to set up that reference point, and この・その・あの uniquely help set that up3.
・この前 only indicates something that has recently occurred, and the use of この brings the situation to the forefront of the conversation.
・その前 may refer to a situation in the near past or at a future point in time; the situation being explained by the speaker is not known by the listener.
・あの前 may refer to a situation in the past or future. Whether it is actually a situation that has happened considerably a while ago or will take a while to occur are both plausible scenarios but not required. What is certain, though, is that by using あの, both the speaker and listener are aware of the situation being discussed.
・No determiner is also possible. In this case, 前の～ translates simply as “the…before,” although a modifier of some sort is still usually present to set up some sort of context.
26.（テストの）前の日にちゃんと勉強しておかなかったから、ひどい点だった。
Since I didn’t properly study the day before (the test), my grade was horrible.
27. ある日曜日に、この前の金曜日と言えば2日前の金曜日を指します。
On a given Sunday, if you were to say last4 Friday, you would be referring to the Friday from two days ago.
28. さらにその前の年には、豪雨で多くの死者・行方不明者が出ています。
And the year before that, there were a lot of deaths/missing people from torrential rain.
29. デモの参加者たちが、暴動を引き起こした、あの前の日に、議員たちは何をしていたのだろう？
That very day before the protestors caused the riot, what were the congressmen doing?
この前 in isolation—without に—in the sense of “the other day” becomes deictic, as “the other day” is contingent on “now.” The presence of に causes この前 to be interpreted non-deictically as “before this,” which can be used in both temporal or spatial contexts.
30. 警察は、この前に男が、違う車で別の事件にも関与したとみて調べている。
The police are looking into the man having been involved in a separate cause in a different vehicle before this.
31. この前に物を置かないで下さい。
Do not place things in front of this.
32. 実はこの前にも献血しようと検査を受けたのですが、ヘモグロビン値が足りなくて、献血できなかったのです。
Actually, I got an exam so I could donate blood just recently, but I wasn’t able to donate blood because my hemoglobin was too low.
33. この前会ったね～！
Yeah, we met the [other day/recently], huh!
この間 (the other (day)), also heard as こないだ in casual speech, is synonymous with the deictic この前, both lacking に. この間に would mean “within this interval,” which can be understood temporally (non-deictic) or spatially.
More specifically, この間 only refers to something which has occurred in the near past, whereas the “prior instance” indicated by この前 is as “recent” as the speaker feels is recent.
34. この前の週末に公園で遊んだりした。
I went to the park to have fun this last weekend.
35. こないだの週末にみんなで京都に行ってきました。
We all went to Kyoto the other weekend.
36. この間、帰国したばかりだ。
I just arrived back (to Japan) the other day.
37. この前、結婚しました。
I got married recently.
｛この・その・あの｝次の～
Similarly as for the phrases for prior, 次 (next) can be used to indicate the following period of time in non-deictic fashion. Unlike those made with 前, 次 non-deictic expressions are particularly overshadowed by their deictic counterparts, which does not detour from the fact that they are not entirely synonymous by nature. For instance, その次の週 is the “week that follows that,” and it must be understood based on the point of reference made evident in the context, whereas 来週 is “next week” with the point of reference always being “now.”
The nuances that この・その・あの add when using 次の are the same as with 前, as they hold true for any nouns they are paired with. What you will find is that 次の is most likely used when seeking clarity in context.
38. 正月にねずみ父母がいて、子を12匹産む。親子で14匹になる。このねずみが2 月には子をまた12匹ずつ産み、親共に 98 匹になる。この次の月にも1 度ずつ親も子も又孫も月々に12 匹ずつ生む。12月末には、ねずみは何匹になっているか？
In the first month of the year, two rats (father and mother), gave birth to 12 offspring. Parents and offspring combined, there were 14 of them. These rats gave birth to 12 more offspring each in February, totaling 98 rats including the parents. The following month after this, the parents, offspring, and the offspring of their offspring each gave birth once to 12 offspring each, and this went on month by month. By the end of December, how many rats would there be?
39. 先日面接を受け、その次の日に採用すると連絡をいただきました。 契約をするから来てほしいと言われ日程調整をして土日に電話すると言われましたが、連絡はなくて、本日も連絡がありません。
The other day, I had an interview, and I received word that they would hire me the following day. I was told to come there to sign an agreement, and I was told that they would call Saturday or Sunday upon setting up a schedule, but they didn’t get in touch with me, and there also hasn’t been a call today.
40. あの次の日には実家に帰る予定だったからなあ。
I had planned to go back to my parents that following day, you see.
次～ in Sino-Japanese Compounds
次～ in Sino-Japanese compounds, read with its ON reading じ, carries the meaning of （その）次の and functions grammatically the same way. Expressions created with it are seldom used outside of formal, business-oriented writing.
41. 次週の予想を見解つきで発表している。
(They) have the predication(s) for the following week announced with explanations.
42. 次年度以降の入学者選抜方法の実施や変更等に就いて、以下の通りお知らせします。
Below we detail the implementation of how new students are selected and changes to how this will be carried out moving forward with the next fiscal year.
43. 研究の進捗によっては、次々年度の予算を前倒して顕微鏡を購入することも想定している。
Depending on our research’s progress, we are also anticipating that we will be purchasing microscopes by front-loading our budget for two years out.
44. 次週もお楽しみに！
Stay tuned for next week!
Sentence Note: By using 次週 instead of 来週, aside from being more formal, 次週 allows for the time frame to not necessarily be “next week” as of the time the speaker is talking. It could be “the next week” in which the event occurs next.
前・先～
The Sino-Japanese prefixes 前・先～ help create an array of very similar expressions. One major difference, though, is that whereas 前～ only creates non-deictic expressions (many of which are restricted to the written language), expressions made with 先～ are either deictic or non-deictic.
| Time | 前～ | 先～ | Compare & Contrast |
| Day | 前日 | 先日 | 前日 = “the previous day,” whereas 先日 = “the other day.” The former is non-deictic, while the latter is deictic. |
| Week | 前週 | 先週 | 前週 is non-deictic, but 先週 is deictic. In formal contexts, 前週 may be used synonymously with 先週. |
| Month | 前月 | 先月 | 前月 is non-deictic, but 先月 is deictic. In formal contexts, 前月 may be used synonymously with 先月. |
| Year | 前年 | 先年 | 前年 is non-deictic, but it may be deictic in formal contexts. 先年 is deictic but refers to the past few years from “now,” and not specifically one year prior. |
| Night | 前夜 | 先夜 | 前夜 is non-deictic and translates to “eve,” whereas 先夜 is deictic and translates to “the other night.” |
45. もし突然世界が終わるとしたら、その前日はごく普通で平穏な日だろう。
If the world were to suddenly end, the day before will probably be a very typical, tranquil day.
46. サンタクロースがクリスマス前夜に靴下の中へプレゼントを入れる由来を知りたい。
I want to know about the origin of Santa Claus putting presents in stockings the night before Christmas.
47. インフルエンザ患者数は、前週より減少したが、依然として多い状況が続いている。
The number of people with the flu has dropped from last week, but cases continue to stay high.
48. 前年も寄付させていただきました。
I also donated last year.
49. 前月に提出のあった人には、今月も県から報告提出の案内が郵送されます。
Information on submitting the report will also be mailed by the prefecture to those who submitted last month.
翌～
The Sino-Japanese prefix 翌～ attaches to an array of time expressions, and this is most commonly used with 日・年・朝. Though the particle に may follow all words made with it, its presence is notably far less common5. This is more so a matter of tone influenced by the etymology of the words themselves.
| 翌日 | ◎ | The next day |
| 翌年 | ◎ | The next year |
| 翌朝 | ◎ | The next morning |
| 翌旦 | 書き言葉 | The next morning |
| 翌週 | 〇 | The next week |
| 翌月 | 〇 | The next month |
| 翌晩 | 〇 | The next evening |
| 翌夕 | 書き言葉 | The next evening |
| 翌夜 | 書き言葉 | The next night |
| 翌暁 | 書き言葉 | The next dawn |
| 翌春 | 書き言葉 | The next spring |
| 翌夏 | 書き言葉 | The next summer |
| 翌秋 | 書き言葉 | The next autumn |
| 翌冬 | 書き言葉 | The next winter |
Reading Notes:
1. 翌朝 may be read as よくあさ or よくちょう, but the former is most common in the spoken language.
2. 翌年 may be read as よくとし or よくねん, but the former is more common in the spoken language.
50. 翌朝には自身は死んでいるだろうと思ったが、夜明けにまだ生きていた。
I figured I would be dead the next morning, but I was still alive when dawn broke.
51. 翌日、川野さんは新橋駅まで荷物を受け取りに行った。
The following day, Kawano-san went to retrieve the luggage at Shimbashi Station.
52. 来週という言葉の起点は現在（今週）です。 翌週なら現在ではない週を起点としている。
The starting point for the word “next week (as in raishū)” is the present (this week). If it were “the following week (as in yokushū),” one is having a week that is not that of the present as the starting point.
53. 翌月も、その翌月も、書評の依頼が来た。
Even the following month, and even the following month after that, book review requests came in.
翌～ may also appear after dates with the same meaning of “the following.”
54. 翌八日、学長が学生側と会見(を)して事情を説明した。
The following day on the 8th, the chairman held a meeting with the student body and explained the situation.
明くる
The native equivalent of 翌～ is 明くる6, and it is paired with non-deictic time expressions.
55. 明くる年も変わらぬご愛顧のほど、宜しくお願い申し上げます。
I ask for your unwavering patronage in the year to follow.
56. 東京へ着いた翌日、三年振りで邂逅した二人は、その時すでに二人ともに何時か互いの傍を立ち退いていたことを発見した。
The day after having arrived in Tokyo is when the two, having only met by chance for the first time in three years, discovered that they both already had left one another’s side at some time.
From 『それから』 by 夏目漱石.
翌々～
翌々～ indicates the “following, following…” and may be in theory used with any non-deictic time expression created with 翌～. One difference, though, is that only ON readings are utilized with them. Meaning, 翌々年 is only read as よくよくねん.
57. 翌々日出荷は北海道・本州・四国・九州が対象です。
Two-day shipment (literally “shipping the following, following day”) is available for Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.
58. 翌々年の納税義務は免除されません。
One’s tax obligation for the following, following year will not be waived.
当～
The Sino-Japanese prefix 当～ means “in question,” and it pairs well with many time related phrases.
| 当時 | At that time |
| 当日 | The day of |
| 当初 | At first/initially |
| 当年 | This/that year※ |
| 当月 | This/that month※ |
| 当週 | This/that week※ |
| 当夜 | This/that night※ |
For many expressions made with 当～, the point of reference often does overlap with “now,” often in a clerical sense. This is so much so that dictionaries will state its overall non-deictic interpretation “the… of/in question” and its ability to mean “this” as being synonymous with the deictic counterpart—ex. 当年 ＝ その年・今年.
Better ways to translate these words without using “this/that” include “current” or “… in question” depending on the context.
59. 過去年度で退職になった社員を当年に復活させたいです。
I’m wishing to bring back an employee who had retired in a previous fiscal year in the current year.
60. 当月に余った通信量は翌月に繰り越せますか？
Can I rollover data left over from the current month to the next month?
61. 当時の人類の化石や石器に基づくと、石器技術は２００万年もの間で僅かしか変化していなかった。
Based on the stone tools and fossils of mankind at the time, their stone technology had hardly changed for as long as two million years.
- に in this context only refers to its temporal usage. Expressions such as 今週に入って (entering this week) utilize it as a transition marker and must not be interpreted as breaking the rule of deictic expressions being incompatible with the temporal に. ↩︎
- Time expressions combined with prefixal distributive demonstratives such as 毎～ (every) do not take the particle に, but suffixal expressions do (ex. 一週間ごとに = per week). ↩︎
- Now, while expressions like “this month (今月)” are deictic, what makes something like この前の月に (lit. “in the month before this”) uniquely non-deictic is that the time reference is understood in context as opposed to being tied to the notion of “now.” While there is always “this month,” one needs only to reference another point for there to be a “before.” Incidentally, the deictic-non-deictic nature of these expressions is not determined by the determiners “this/that,” per se, than they are by the intrinsic natures of the temporal nouns involved. ↩︎
- この前の+ [time phrase] may translate as “last…” ↩︎
- Perhaps due to being Sino-Japanese in origin and being more prone to be used in the written language, non-deictic phrases made with 翌～・当～ are usually not used with に . ↩︎
- 翌る is an alternative spelling. ↩︎