Start To II: ～かける & ～かかる
In this lesson, we will learn about the compound verb endings (V2) ～かける and ～かかる, which may both function as aspect markers in their own unique ways when compared to similar markers like ～出す.
～かける
Similarly to how ～出す has two different yet interrelated interpretations, so does ～かける. Furthermore, those two usages happen to mirror those of ～出す as far as how they behave grammatically.
Meaning ① of ～かける can be described as a “semantic compound verb” ending which denotes directionality (指向性) – whether it be physical or psychological – in which the phenomenon is placed “onto” the receiver of the action/event.
Meaning ② of ～かける denotes the very early stages of some action being started or event starting. This meaning is what can be defined as an aspect marker.
Meaning ①: 『指向』を表す「～かける」
The directionality that ～かける denotes depends on the surrounding grammatical structures, but they can also all be linked back to the many nuances of the standalone verb かける.
| Preceding Sentence Structure | Transitivity of V1 | Transitivity of Compound | 指向性 | Verb |
| Object + に・へ + Object + を | 他 | 他 | Rest/rely on | 立てかける to set against |
| Object + に（向かって） ・をめがけて + Object + を | 他 | 他 | Launch onto | 吐きかける to spit at |
| Object (Person) + に（向かって） | 自 他 | 自 他 | Subject to | 笑いかける to grin at |
| Object (Destination) + に（向かって）・をめがけて | 他 | 自 | Direct into | 詰めかける to crowd into |
| Object + を | 他 | 他 | Seize onto | 追いかける to chase/pursue |
| Object + を | 他 | 他 | Eyes onto | 見かける to happen to see |
A major taking point from these sentence structures is that particle usage pertaining to the compound verb as a whole reflects the literal meaning of かける invoked, of which we see there are roughly five different angles.
Take for instance 詰めかける (to crowd into). While the basic sentence structure of V1 (詰める = “to stuff in”) is “object + を + (object + に) 詰める,” the basic sentence structure of 詰めかける is, as stated in the chart above, “object (destination) + に 詰めかける.”
1. 彼の顔に煙をぷっと吹きかけた。
(I) puffed smoke into his face.
2. 梯子を壁に立てかけなさい。
Set the ladder against the wall.
3. 私は、彼のつまらない冗談に笑いかけた。
I smiled at his lame joke.
4. 大勢の観客がスタジアムに詰めかけた。
A large number of spectators crammed into the stadium.
5. 思わず、そばに立っている男にゲロを吐きかけてしまった。
I unintentionally threw up all over a man standing next to me.
6. タオルをひっかけた足を上に伸ばし、下ろしている足の膝もできるだけ伸ばしましょう。
Stretch the leg with the towel caught around it upward, and stretch the knee of the leg you have resting as much as you can too.
7. 塩を振りかけたら、３０分置いて焼きましょう。
Once you’ve sprinkled over salt on it, have it grill for 30 minutes.
8. 追いかけてきてほしい。
I want to be pursued (by someone).
9. 警察は犯罪者に問いかけた。
The police questioned the criminal.
10. 社長が盗聴器を仕掛けているようです。
The company president appears to have set wiretaps.
Orthography Note: The kanji 掛 is hardly used to write either ～かける or ～かかる, but the phrase 仕掛ける in the sense of “to set (a trap)” is frequently spelled as such.
Meaning ②: 『始動態』『将現態』を表す「～かける」
As for the aspect marker ～かける, the nature of how V1 is starting can be described as:
The agent is entering the first stage of an action (V1) presumed to continue further, in which case, the process can be described as being “on the verge” of being carried through, and in some contexts, “on the verge” of even starting.
This can then be explicitly bifurcated to the concept of 『始動態』and『将現態』described by 金田一 (1976) as:
始動態: “Aspect” which denotes the start of an action which is “on the verge of” being carried through, thus partially done (even if it is in the initial stages).
将現態: “Aspect” which denotes that an action is “on the verge” of starting but has not yet actually taken place.
Whereas particle usage pertaining to the compound verb as a whole reflects the literal meaning of かける invoked by Meaning ①, when used as an aspect marker under Meaning ②, particle usage reflects whatever V1 would be used with.
11. 何かを言いかけたよね？
You started saying something, didn’t you?
You almost said something, didn’t you?
12. 彼女は二度と死にかけた。
She almost died twice.
13. 夜が明けかけている。
The day is breaking.
14. 見知らぬ人に話しかけてはいけない。
Don’t talk to strangers!
15. 宿題をやりかけたところで寝落ちしてしまった。
Just as I was starting to do my homework, I fell asleep.
16. 料理をしかけたところで電話が鳴り出した。
Just as I was starting to cook, the phone started ringing.
17. 石に躓いて溝に落ちかけた。
I tripped on a rock and almost fell in a ditch.
When the particle の follows the 連用形 of a ～かける compound, the action implied will always be unfinished and most likely just started.
18. 飲みかけのビールをテーブルの上に置いたまま、食事の準備をしていた。
I left my unfinished beer on the table as I prepared dinner.
19. 読みかけの本を読み終わらないうちに、新しい本を読みだすな。
Don’t start reading a new book before you’ve finished reading a book you’ve only partially read.
Because Meaning ① is indicative of a “semantic compound verb” ending while Meaning ② corresponds to a “syntactical compound verb” ending, that means that given the proper context, ～かける could be doubled up, with the first instance being Meaning ① and the immediately following second instance being Meaning ②.
20. ロケット団のムサシ・コジロウ・ニャースの３人が、ピカチュウを捕えようと罠をしかけかけた。
The three members of Team Rocket, Jesse, James, and Meowth, were beginning to lay down a trap so they could capture Pikachu.
～かかる
Just as ～かける had two different meanings based on whether it is being used as a “semantic compound verb” ending or as a “syntactical compound verb,” the same can be said for ～かかる. In either case to be described, ～かかる is far less productive than ～かける. Meaning, you will not see nearly as many examples. This can be attributed to the more finetuned environments in which it appears.
Meaning ①: 『指向』を表す「～かかる」
The directionality that ～かかる denotes depends on the surrounding grammatical structures, but they can also all be linked back to the many nuances of the standalone verb かかる. Notably, though, the contexts in which ～かかる may be used are not as diverse as those with ～かける.
| Preceding Sentence Structure | Transitivity of V1 | Transitivity of Compound | Directionality | Verb |
| Object + に・へ + に | 自 自 自・他 | 自 自 自 | Fall onto Rest on Launch onto | 降りかかる 寄りかかる 襲いかかる |
| Object (Place) + に・へ・を | 自 | 自 | Come across | 通りかかる |
From this chart, it is apparent that ～かかる differs considerably with ～かける in that all instances are intransitive. Just as Meaning ① with ～かける behaves, though, is that the particles chosen for the basic sentence structure with a given compound with ～かかる will reflect the literal meaning of かかる that is invoked.
Take for instance 飛びかかる (to spring at). Whereas V1 (飛ぶ) exhibits the basic sentence structure “agent + が + medium in space/time + を + 飛ぶ,” the basic sentence structure of 飛びかかる is “agent + が + object + に + 飛びかかる.”
21. 心痛が重く伸しかかった。
Mental agony weighed heavily on her.
22. 熊はやにわに獲物に飛びかかった。
The bear sprang at its prey in an instant.
23. 電車の中で座っていて、隣の人に寄りかかられたときの正しい対処法について説明したいと思います。
I’d like to explain the proper means of handling when the person sitting next to you as you’re sitting on the train leans over on you.
24. どんなに辛い現実が押しかかったとしても、逃げずに踏ん張って、立ち向かうことによって必ず道は見えてくる。
No matter how tough reality weighs down on you, a path (forward) will always appear to you by not running away (from that reality), standing your ground, and addressing it.
25. 「建物が燃えている」と、近くを通りかかった人から通報があった。
There was a report from someone who had passed nearby where “a building was on fire.”
Meaning ②: 『始動態』を表す「～かかる」
～かかる may also be used to mean “to begin,” but it implies that one is on the verge of meeting the end result (or will certainly end up that way).
When used as an aspect marker, V1 is largely limited to unaccusative verbs, which encompasses many intransitive verbs as well as the passive forms of transitive verbs, but it is not capable of being used with any and all intransitive verbs. Rather, unaccusative verbs specifically refer to intransitive verbs whose subjects do not initiate what happens.
26. 死にかかる魚って見たことがあまりない。
I have seldom seen fish at the point of death.
27. 何時から仕事に取りかかりますか。
When will you get to work on the job?
28. 「やっと着いたな」と汽車を降りる準備（を）しかかったとき、席を立たずにじっとしているよう命じられた。
As I was preparing to get off the train, thinking “yes, we’ve finally arrived,” I was ordered to stay put and not to get up from my seat.
Grammar Note: しかかる is a notable exception in which ～かかる does attach to a transitive verb, and we see that as opposed to しかける which could either imply an attempt by the agent or that the agent is about to proceed with said action, しかかる implies that the action is, in fact, underway.
29. 津田はすぐ第二の予防策に取りかかった。
Tsuda swiftly got to work on a second preventative measure.
From 『明暗』 by 夏目漱石.
30. こういう言葉がつい口の先へ出かかったのを、彼は驚いて、引っ込ましてしまったのである。
He was shocked at the fact that these words were even on the tip of his tongue, which is (why) he drew them back.
From 『明暗』 by 夏目漱石.
Grammar Note: While the act of uttering what was on the speaker’s mind was not ultimately carried out, the words themselves were treated metaphorically as an object that had already traveled to the tip of the tongue and about to fulfill the action of escaping through the lists. Thus, ～かかる does not quite ever describe 将現態 in the way ～かける can.
参照
姫野1999
金田一1976
複合動詞「Vかかる」「Vかける」の文法化