The Auxiliary ～たる: たるや、たるもの、たりとも
In Classical Japanese, there were two copular auxiliaries: ～なり and ～たり. Both could be used after nouns and adjectival nouns alike, but the narrower scope of the latter auxiliary ～たり, defined how the two differed across their shared domains.
As Japanese entered its modern era, many grammatical changes unfolded across the various conjugatable parts of speech. Verbs experienced a complete merger with their 終止形 and 連体形, while adjectives and adjectival nouns experienced a reduction in the number of distinct classes, and one such distinction was the loss of adjectival nouns marked by ～たり – known as タル形容動詞1 – as a fully functioning part of speech.
In this lesson, we will learn to what degree these タル形容動詞 still exist as well as what high-level grammar points in which they are utilized. We will also look briefly at how the copular auxiliary ～たり may still function with nouns in its limited capacity.
タル形容動詞→ タルト型活用
Classical Japanese possessed a class of adjectival nouns known as タリ型形容動詞. These words all derive from Sino-Japanese compounds, often utilizing obscure Kanji rarely seen in the lexicon. Such descriptive words were heavily favored in Kundoku-style (Chinese-style) writing.
In Modern Japanese, the タリ型形容動詞 of Classical Japanese has been reduced to just two bases: its たる‐連用形 and its と- 連用形, and as such, the class as a whole is most often referenced as タルト型活用.
The たる‐連用形 is predominantly used before nominals, and because the 終止形 (to be seen) is defunct, where one would typically expect the 終止形 to appear, the 連体形 is instead used with a generic nominalizer such as もの・こと following.
1. 兵士は正々堂々たる態度を見せました。
The soldier displayed a sporting and dignified attitude.
2. 荒涼たる光景を見下ろした。
(I) looked down upon the desolate scene.
3. 迷亭はあいかわらず飄然2たる事を云う。
Meitei, as usual, is aloof in response.
From 『吾輩は猫である』by 夏目漱石.
4. 金田夫人は判然たる直線流の言葉遣いをする。
Mrs. Kaneda choice of words is direct in style and evident as such.
From 『吾輩は猫である』by 夏目漱石.
5. 河の周囲は茫々たる砂漠のみ。
All that surrounds the river is an expanse of desert.
6. 政府の行動は泰然たるものだ。
The government’s actions are firm.
7. 彼らは武志の鬱勃たる野心を抑えられなかったのである。
They could not suppress Takeshi’s irrepressible ambition.
8. 純然たる違法行為であると断じてよい。
It is appropriate to conclude that it is an utterly illegal act.
9. 御母堂の鼻はシーザーのそれのごとく、正しく英姿颯爽たる隆起に相違ございません。
(Her) mother’s nose is just like that of Caesar’s, without a doubt a protrusion both valiant and formidable.
From 『吾輩は猫である』by 夏目漱石.
10. 淼々たる大海原を彷徨うた。
(I) wandered the vast, endless ocean.
11. 面前での嘲笑は侮辱の最たるものだ。
Being scorned in one’s presence is the utmost insult.
The と‐連用形 is used adverbially and is analogous in function to the に-連用形 of 形容詞.
12. 毎日塾に行って、兀々と勉強していると成績はどんどん上がった。
By going to cram school daily and studying diligently, my grades quickly went up.
More often than note, して appears as an adverbial affix (often attributed as a particle) after the と‐連用形, producing として. In Classical Japanese, all possible interpretations possible within the syntactic scope of the particle て were valid. Meaning, として functioned as the て形 which connected clauses.
In Modern Japanese, however, として functions merely as an adverbial gerund, being syntactically identical to just using と. The choice between the two is arbitrary. Whereas として has appeared heavily in Kundoku-style writing for centuries (as an analogous structure to both にて＞で and に), と has simply held a purely adverbial function akin to に. Nowadays, として is more likely used with words deemed obscure and/or indicative of the written language (Ex. 13), while と persists as the preferred adverbial form for the handful of examples of タルト活用 that have remained in use in the spoken language (Ex. 12).
13. 但し男子は一人も交らない。ただ遠くから見ている。遠く見ていると暮色蒼然たる波の上に、白い肌（はだえ）が模糊として動いている。
However, not one guy mingled (with them). (They) merely watched from afar. As (they) looked from afar, the white skin (of the girls) could be seen faintly moving about above the waves in the somber light of dusk.
From 『吾輩は猫である』by 夏目漱石.
14. 執着せず、悠々と（して）暮らす。
To live life leisurely without fixating (on anything).
15. 学術的な書物としては、読者を間違った方向に導くことは厳｛として 〇・と △｝慎むべきだ。
As an academic publication, one must strictly abstain from directing readers down the wrong direction.
して, however, may also possess a copular quality when paired with the と-連用形. In doing so, the forms ～とした and ～としている serve as alternative 連体形 and 終止形 respectively which have subsequently become predominant. The aspect dynamic of ～た・ている3 are mapped onto these structures, with ～とした only appearing before nominals and ～としている appearing in both before nominals and in predicate position though heavily favoring the latter. Notice, though, how ～としている is still normally followed by a nominalizing component when used as the predicate.
16. 彼は歴然（れっき）としたプロだ。
He is a full-fledged pro.
17. 二人とも堂々とした方でした。
Both of them were dignified individuals.
18. 女性は、淡々とした口調で犯行に及んだその経緯を語り始めた。
The woman began telling the sequence of events which led to the crime in a detached tone.
19. 生徒はスポットライトに負けまいと、堂々とした姿でステージに立った。
The student stood up on the stage with a dignified appearance, daring not to lose to the spotlight.
20. 危機感とは、漠然とした不安を抱いている状態です。
The sense of danger is the state of having a vague sense of unease.
21. お家に流れる空気はとても清々しくて凛としているものです。
The air flowing the home is both very brisk and chilly.
22. 優れた音楽家はどんな時も泰然自若としているものだ。
Superb musicians are always self-possessed no matter the moment.
Neologic use of Defunct Bases
While the bases of タル形容動詞 have been principally limited to the two bases discussed above, the full base paradigm that they possessed in Classical Japanese may still be invoked in modern diction for various literary effects. Note, though, that other changes in Modern Japanese grammar still affect this paradigm.
| 未然形 | 連用形 | 終止形 | 連体形 | 已然形4 | 命令形 | |
| 文語 | たら | たり・と | たり | たる | たれ | たれ |
| 現代語 | たろ | (たり) ・と | (たり) | たる | たれ | たれ |
In the examples that follow Version A illustrates how a speaker might purposefully utilize these defunct bases, whereas Version B illustrates a far modern approach in totality. Notice how Version B heavily utilizes derivations of ～とする.
23a. 先生未だに快然たらず。（未然形）
23b. 先生は未だに快然としていない。
Sensei has yet to recover.
24a. 北には青山峨々たりして5、松吹く風索々たり。（たり‐連用形）
24b. 北には青山が峨々としており、松を吹く風が索々としている。
In the north, the green mountains are steep, and the wind which blows through the pines is has a desolate ring to it.
25a. 自国の権益を守るため断固たる措置を取る。（連体形）
25b. 自国の権益を守るため断固とした措置を取る。
(We) will take firm measures to protect (our) own country’s interest.
26a. 皆事故に騒然たれど、見直しに言及せしは未だ野党のみ。（已然形）
26b. 皆が事故に騒然としているけれど、見直しに言及したものは野党のみ。
Though everyone may be in an uproar of the accident, the only ones who have alluded to reviewing (the incident) has been the opposition party.
27a. 焔の如く堂々たれ。（命令形）
27b. 炎のように堂々としろ。
Be brazen like a flame.
It is not always a given that ～たり is replaced by an etymologically tied structure in modern speech. In the case of 主（しゅ）たり meaning “primary,” we see that it is replaced by 主（な）in typical discourse, but when 主たり is invoked, we see that 主たる remains as its 連体形 and that 主とした is indicative of XをYとする grammar, which is demonstrated by the use of the particle を (Ex. 18).
28. 本文ではその｛主たる 〇・主とした X・主な ◎｝理由をどう考えているか、１００字以内で説明しなさい。
Explain within 100 characters what you think of the primary reason for that in this passage.
29. 監査報酬の値上げ｛を主とした ◎・が主たる X｝理由に公認会計士を交代した上場企業は増えている。
Listed companies, which have changed their certified public accountant(s) with increase in audit fees as their primary reason for doing so, are on the rise.
In fact, there are examples such as 最たり meaning “prime (example of)” that not only did not inherent even ト活用 (the use of the と-連用形), but is replaced likewise by various paraphrases which do not include its base morpheme.
30a. その最たる例として挙げられる。
30b. その最も顕著な例として挙げられる。
(It) is given as a prime example.
Some タル形容動詞 such as 全然たり meaning “absolute” have completely lost their adjectival noun nature in favor of being strictly used adverbially, foregoing the need to mark said adverbial nature with the と-連用形 altogether. Though there is still a semantic connection between 全然たり and 全然 (completely (so or not so)), 全然たり, too, would be paraphrased completely out in modern speech.
31a. 彼は全然たる狂人である。
31b. 彼は全くの狂人である。
He is an absolute maniac.
With the proper たり-終止形 being particularly moribund, when the need arises, it is of course best to replace it with the たる-連体形 followed by a nominal component, but on rare occasion, the corrupted form ～たるだ may be observed.
32. 行政改革は号令のみで旧態依然たる（状態 ◎）だ。
The administrative reform is merely an order, and the (system) is still as the old state.
The Copular Verb ～たり
While the タル形容動詞 described thus far also utilize the copular verb ～たり to behave adjectivally, the copular verb itself is an analogous structure to ～なり (the latter which ultimately gave rise to the modern だ・である).
The auxiliary verb ～たり first appears in Late Old Japanese, and it gained prominence in Kundoku-style writing, just as it did when used with adjectival nouns. As for the nouns it followed, ～たり tended to emphasize the qualifications and/or circumstances of whatever it followed. In English, it is often translated as “to have the qualities of” as opposed to “to be” to reflect this nuancing.
Given that the copular verb ～たり is archaic, whenever its use is invoked in modern speech, any of its bases may be seen along with other archaisms.
| 未然形 | 連用形 | 終止形 | 連体形 | 已然形 | 命令形 |
| たら | たり・と | たり | たる | たれ | たれ |
33. 若き兵士たり。（終止形）
(He) is a soldier.
34. 清盛、嫡男たるによって、その跡を継ぐ。（連体形）
Since Kiyomori was the first son, he inherited that position.
From the 『平家物語』.
35. 日本よ国家たれ。（命令形）
Japan, have the qualities of a nation!
～たるや
One still somewhat productive use of the copular verb ～たり in Modern Japanese in literary fashion is ～たるや, which utilizes its 連体形 followed by the adverbial particle や.
The particle や in Classical Japanese began as a bound particle fixated mid-sentence at the start of an interrogative main clause. Depending on the context, the question could either just cast doubt over the content of said clause or pose it as a rhetorical question. As we know from Modern Japanese, though, it has since transformed into an exclamatory final particle used to emphasize a sentence similarly to how the final particle よ does.
Consequently, ～たるや can be understood in two ways: either to emphatically emphasize a topic, or to cast doubt in its original sense, though the latter reading is excessively rare in modern contexts. In either sense, や functions as an adverbial particle, as it is placed at the end of a dependent clause (opposite of its original function). When no main clause follows, ～たるや can be viewed as an exclamatory affirmative affix similar to ～だよ but with the quantifying effect ellipsed.
36. その技術たるや、ものすごい。
As far as the technique is concerned, it’s terrific.
37. 教師たるや、生徒の信頼なくして存在し得ぬ職業である。
Being a teacher is an occupation which cannot exist without the trust of one’s students.
38. 女王の威厳たるや！
Oh, how the queen had dignity!
39. 人の善果たして狐疑善たるや否を知らず・・・
Knowing not whether to doubt the virtue of man is truly good……
From 『唯心的、凡神的傾向に就て』by 山路愛山.
～たるもの（は）
The most ubiquitous use of the copular verb ～たる in Modern Japanese is in the pattern ～たるもの（は）, which utilizes もの as a nominalizing agent given that the 連体形 does not retain its nominalizing power in and of itself as it does in Classical Japanese (Ex. 34).
The purpose of ～たるものは is to denote that the noun it follows is exemplary of the certain quality/condition that follows. What follows is most often a role or status statement that is expected of the subject.
40. 社会人たるもの、挨拶や時間を守ることなどができて当然でしょう。
It’s only natural for a person of society to maintain salutations and time.
41. 紳士たるもの、強くなければならない。
A gentleman must be strong.
42. 政治家たるものは、失言があってはならない。
Politicians must not make gaffes.
43. 教師たるものは、言動に気をつけなければならない。
Teachers must pay attention to their behavior.
44. 大統領たるものは、鋭利な頭脳を持たなければならない。
A president must hold a sharp mind.
～たりとも
The conjunctive particle たりとも is analogous in structure to ではあっても. Being the combination of the copular verb ～たり in its 終止形 and the conjunctive particle とも, syntactically it ought to follow all sorts of nouns as it did in Classical Japanese.
However, in modern speech it is largely limited to counter phrases, and the number used is restricted to one – though counter entities which indicate large degrees such as years, tons, etc. are excluded. Another peculiarity is that it is paired with the negative ～ない, causing the pattern to translate as “not even6.”
45. 一字たりとも許さぬぞ。
I won’t allow even a single letter (being wrong).
46. 1日たりとも忘れたことはありません。
I haven’t forgotten even a single day.
47. 一瞬たりとも気を抜いてはいけないよ。
You mustn’t lose focus for even a moment.
48. これからは1日たりとも日本語の練習を怠けてはいけない！
You mustn’t slack off your Japanese practice for even a day from now on!
49. 1円たりとも無駄にしてほしくありません。
I don’t wish for even a single yen to be wasted.
50. 1分たりとも遅れないようにしてください。
Please make it toward you are not late for even one minute.
- In line with how the modern adjectival noun class ナ形容動詞 is denoted by its 連体形 as opposed to its 終止形, the defunct タル形容動詞 class is also denoted by its 連体形, as the naming convention タリ形容動詞 which uses its 終止形 is used when referring to the same class in respect to Classical Japanese grammar as opposed to Modern Japanese grammar.
It must be noted that the exact naming today is in flux. Some choose to refer to all adjectival classes as 形容詞. You may also see this class referred to simply by タルト（型）活用. ↩︎ - ～然, a Sino-Japanese suffix indicating affinity, frequently precedes ～たり. ↩︎
- As タル形容動詞 still behave as adjectival predicates, tense is restricted to the non-past tense regardless of the morphology involved. Meaning, ～としている ought to be viewed as a static representation of continuous state and not as an action in progress. This also goes for ～とした, which should be viewed likewise and never as the past tense. ↩︎
- In the context of Modern Japanese, the 已然形 is rendered as the 仮定形 due to a semantic shift which affected the particle ば which attaches to it. ↩︎
- ～たりして involves the たり‐連用形 which largely was restricted to auxiliary verbs, followed by して, which serves as a conjunctive agent here to allow the two clauses to connect together. In this context, して is much like how て would function in modern grammar. ↩︎
- In Classical Japanese, ～たりとも had greater freedom as an emphatic contrastive conjunction, which is in line with its etymology. ↩︎