The Causative I: ～させる & ～せる
The auxiliary verbs ～させる and ～せる create what is known as the “causative form” (使役形), which equates to “A (the subject) makes/lets an agent (X) do a certain action (Y).”
Before we look at what “causation” means and the grammatical restrictions had with it in Japanese, know that unlike many languages including English and Korean, the verb 作る meaning “to make (something)” is not used to mean “to make” as in the causative form, which pertains to someone making someone else do something.
1a. Xを怒る作る X
1b. Xを怒らせる 〇
Literally: To make X be angry.
To anger X.
The notion of the causative form – “A makes X do Y” – is often confused with the grammar pattern “XをYにする,” which is used to show that “A makes/has something (X) be a certain way (Y).”
2. 音楽が小さくなった。
The music(‘s volume) got smaller/quieter.
3. 音楽を小さくした。
(I) turned down the music.
4. 彼に音楽を小さくさせた。
I made him turn down the music.
The Causative Auxiliaries ～させる & ～せる
「使役形」の助動詞、～させる・せる
The causative form (使役形) is used with both transitive and intransitive verbs alike, but as we shall see, this does present the question of how the “person being made to the act” and the object of said verb are denoted via particles.
These auxiliaries both follow the 未然形 of verbs and they both exhibit 一段 conjugation. They differ only by what verb classes they follow. As shown below, both these auxiliaries have dialectal1 五段-conjugating variants: ～さす and ～す.
| Verb Class | Auxiliary | Example | Auxiliary | Example |
| 一段 | ～させる | 食べさせる | ～さす | 食べさす |
| 五段 | ～せる | 行かせる | ～す | 行かす |
| する | ～せる | させる | ～す | さす |
| 来る | ～させる | 来させる | ～さす | 来さす (X/△) |
The 一段-conjugating auxiliaries ～させる・せる are not restricted in the way their 五段-conjugating auxiliaries ～さす・す are, which is due to their corrupted etymology2.
| Class | Verb | 使役形 終止形・連体形 | Neg. | Past |
| 一段 | 見る (to see) | 見させる 見さす (X/△) | 見させない | 見させた ◎ 見さした |
| 五段 | 言う (to say) | 言わせる◎ 言わす | 言わせない | 言わせた◎ 言わした |
| 五段 | 死ぬ (to die) | 死なせる 死なす | 死なせない | 死なせた ◎ 死なした |
| 五段 | 微笑む (to smile) | 微笑ませる◎ 微笑ます | 微笑ませない | 微笑ませた◎ 微笑ました |
| サ変 | する (to do) | させる さす(X/△) | させない | させた◎ さした |
| カ変 | 来る (to come) | 来（こ）さす(X/△) | 来（こ）させない | 来させた ◎ 来さした |
Although the copula (either in noun-predicates or in adjectival-noun predicates) and adjectives are not directly modified by these causative auxiliaries, the pattern XをYにする can be rendered in the causative form as “AがXにZをY[にさせる].” While X is still the agent of Y, Z is the object of the resulting action. In this scenario, に serves to mark who the subject allocates the task.
| Example | Causative | |
| 名詞＋だ | 馬鹿だ (to be an idiot) | 馬鹿にさせる (A makes X make Y out to be an idiot） |
| 形容詞 | 新しい (to be new) | 新しくさせる (A has X make Y be new) |
| 形容動詞（＋だ） | 簡単だ (to be easy) | 簡単にさせる (A makes X make Y be easy) |
The Causative w/ Transitive Verbs
When using transitive verbs in the causative, the direct object is marked with を. Meanwhile, the agent allocated/made to carry out the predicate by the subject of the sentence is marked with に.
5. 弟にゴミを出させる。
I make my younger brother take out the trash.
6. 太郎君にカメを殺させる。
To make Taro-kun kill a turtle.
7. 母は弟に犬にエサをやらせた。
My mom made my little brother feed the dog.
Sentence Note: The first に marks the brother as the person being made to do the action (the actual agent of the action) and the second に marks the dog as the recipient of the food (indirect object).
The Causative W/ Intransitive Verbs
When using intransitive verbs in the causative, the choice between を and に for marking the agent (the one being made to do the action = 被使役者) appears less clear-cut.
Most resources fail to address the semantic factors that compel speakers to use one particle over the other.
As for when the particle を is chosen, its use may imply a compelling/overbearing force, and when the agent happens to be an emotion-less/inanimate entity (非情物), its use becomes obligatory.
8. 友達を怒らせる。
To anger a friend.
9. 風が木を揺らせていた。
The wind shook the tree(s).
10. ネズミを死なせる。
To make the rat die.
を is also expected in situations in which, as we saw with “AがXにZをY[にさせる],”
the direct object is being acted upon by someone being made to act by the subject, as opposed to the subject simply having the direct object be a certain way.
In this scenario, Y is simply an intransitive verb + ～させる・せる.
11a. （Aが）心を乱れさせる。
11b. （Aが）心を乱す。
11a. (For A) to have… mess with (someone’s) mind.
11b. (For A) to mess with (one’s/someone’s) mind.
The choice of に over を may indicate the subject’s recognition of the will of the person being made to do something, rendering an interpretation of “to let” as opposed to being viewed as meaning “to make.”
12. 父親は子ども｛を ◎・に｝ プールで泳がせてあげました。
The father let his child swim in the pool.
13. 今回は山本｛を・に｝行かせましょうか。
Next time, let’s [have/let] Yamamoto go.
When another function of に is in use, or such function is implied in context, the use of に becomes unnatural.
14. 子ども｛を 〇・に X｝ベンチに座らせる。
To make the/a child(ren) sit on the bench.
15. 子ども｛を 〇・に 〇/△｝座らせる。
To make the/a child(ren) sit.
16. 先生は吉田さん｛を ◎・に 〇｝そこへ座らせました。
The teacher [had/let] Yoshida-san sit there.
17. 毎朝犬に公園を散歩させます。
I let my dog walk through the park every morning.
18. 子供｛を 〇・に △/X｝おつかいに行かせる。
To make/let a kid go do an errand.
19. 親は子供｛を 〇・に △/X｝買い物に行かせた。
The parent made/had his/her child(ren) go shopping.
20. ワンちゃんに道の内側を歩かせる。
To make the dog walk inside the road.
Though the particle を is not used in Ex. 20 to mark a direct object, the particle に is used to mark the 被使役者 so as to avoid the doubling of を, but it can also be said that に adds a sense of directionality behind the subject’s coaxing of the agent.
Yet, with verbs such as 答える (to answer) in which the object is marked by に as opposed to を due to the strong sense of directionality behind the action, and with the substance of “the answer” being felt as the true direct object left unspoken, we see that in Ex. 21, it is both natural and obligatory to mark the agent with に despite there now being two に in the same clause. To help visualize why this is, consider also the paraphrasing of Ex. 21 which allows for を to be used.
21. 先生は、学生に[質問に答え＝質問を解答]させる。
The teacher made/had his/her students answer (to) the questions.
22. 先生は学生を帰らせました。
The teacher sent his/her students home.
23. 毎朝犬｛を ◎・に｝散歩させます。
I [walk the dog/let the dog go on a walk] every morning.
24. 妹を大阪に来させるつもりだ。
I intend on making my younger sister come to Osaka.
25. 気分が悪そうなので生徒｛を・に｝先に帰らせた。
Since the student seemed to feel bad, I [had/let] him/her go home earlier.
26a. 人に立たせる。
26b. 人を立たせる
26a. To make someone have…stand.
26b. To make a person stand.
Causative Vs ～て｛もらう・いただく｝
When you say you had someone do something for you, instead of using the causative, you use ～てもらう・～ていただく. With expressions concerning emotions, those things are not in your control to cause. So, using them with the causative is fine. So, you can say something like 母を心配させた. This is because the causative does not have to be intentional. ～てもらう・～ていただく always are.
27. 先生に推薦状を書いていただきました。(You didn’t make the teacher do it.)
I had my teacher write me a letter of recommendation.
28. 先生に推薦状を書かせました。(Not for your benefit at all)
I made the teacher write a letter of recommendation.
Also note that the use of に is different. In the first sentence it shows from whom you received the action. In the second sentence it marks who was forced to do the action.
29. 笑わせないでください。
Please don’t make me laugh.
30. 人を酔わせる。
To intoxicate a person.
31. 方言は日本語をより美しくて、素晴らしい言語として成り立たせていると思います。
I think that dialects serve to make Japanese as a more beautiful and wonderful language.
32. 母が妹に掃除させたのにがらがらと笑ったんだ。
I laughed so hard about my mom making my younger sister wash the dishes.
33. でも、父が僕に空手を習わせたのは嫌だったよ。
But, I hated that my dad made me take karate.
34. 僕にもやらせてもらえない（か）？
Could you let me play it?.
35. 森林を焼けさせる。
To have/let the forests burn.
36. 祖母を休ませました。
We made our grandmother take a rest.
37. 弟は野菜が嫌いだが、母は弟に毎日野菜を食べさせるつもりだ。
My younger brother hates vegetables, but my mother plans to make him eat them every day.
38. 今働き始めたら、それだけ早く済ませるだろう。
If we were to start working now, the quicker we would probably finish.
39. 何と言っても金が世の中を動かすのさ。
No matter what, money makes the world go round.
40. 演出家は助言を与えるため度々リハーサルを中断させた。
The producer interrupted rehearsals frequently in order to give advice.
41.
A. あなたが、日本語の先生だったら、学生に何をさせますか。
B. 日本語の先生だったら、学生に｛日本語で書かれた本 ◎･日本語の本・和書｝を読むようにさせるでしょう。
A. If you were a Japanese teacher, what would you make your students do?
B. If I were a Japanese teacher, I’d make my students try to read Japanese words.
42.
A. あなたが、社長になったら、秘書に何をさせますか。
B. 週ごとに報告書を書かせるでしょう。
A. If you were a company president, what would you make your secretary do?
B. I would make (the secretary) write a report a week.
43.
A. 頭のいいロボットがいたら、何をさせますか。
B. 掃除をさせるでしょう。
A. If you had a smart robot, what would you make it do?
B. I’d make it do my laundry.
44.
A. 親になったら、子供に何をさせてあげますか。
B. 日本語と韓国語を習わせてあげるでしょう。
A. When you become a parent, what would you have your children do?
B. I would have (them) study Japanese and Korean.
45.
A. 結婚したら、相手に何をさせてあげますか。
B. ハワイに旅行させてあげるでしょう。
A. When you’re married, what would you have your partner do?
B. I’d take him/her on a trip to Hawaii.
Unconcern or Let
“Making” someone do something and “letting” someone do something are very similar, as we have seen. In Japanese, context largely plays a role in determining whether the causative indicates “coercion (make)” vs. “approval (let),” especially in the case of transitive verbs in which を・に do not exhibit interchangeability.
As for intransitive verbs for which overlap is observed, we have seen how a compelling force is attached to を, whereas a recognition of the agent’s will often renders a “to let” interpretation. However, when the agent’s emotional status cannot be ascertained or is nonexistence, the difference between “to make” and “to let” is also consequentially nonexistent.
46. 昼に全生徒｛を ◎・に △｝帰らせました。 (Intransitive Causative = Compelling Force)
I let all of my students go home at noon.
47. お風呂の水を溢れさせてしまったの！(Intransitive Causative = Emotionless Agent)
I accidentally let the water in the tub overflow!
48. 育て方を間違えて子供をいじけさせるのは親の最悪の悪夢だ。(Transitive Causative)
Incorrectly raising up one’s child and having that child grow perverse is a parent’s worst nightmare.
49. ちょっと考えさせてください。(Transitive Causative)
Please let me think about it.
50. 車を使わせてください。(Transitive Causative)
Please let me use your car.
～させて｛もらう・いただく｝
When paired with ～てもらう・ていただく, the speaker humbly takes permission to do something. Rather than simply saying “I will do something,” you are saying that you are taking it upon yourself, but you are aware of the person/people responsible for allowing you to even do it in the first place. This is why ～させていただきます is becoming ever more common in honorifics.
51. 会議を始めさせていただきます。(謙譲語)
I shall be commencing the meeting.
When the causative form is paired with ～てあげる・やる, ～てくれる, ～てもらう, the sense of permission becomes clear and distinguishable from the “make” definition.
52. 先生は学生｛を・に｝トイレに行かせてあげた。
The teacher let the student go to the restroom.
53. 父は僕に車を運転させてくれた。
My dad let me drive the car.
54.
A. 子供の時、皆の両親は、何をさせてくれませんでしたか。
B. 子供の時、一人で遊ばせてくれませんでした。
A. As a child, what did everyone’s parents not let them do?
B. When I was a child, I wasn’t allowed to play alone.
55.
A. 高校の時、皆の両親は、何をさせてくれませんでしたか。
B. ｛酒・アルコール｝を飲ませてくれませんでした。
A. In high school, what did everyone’s parents not let them do?
B. They wouldn’t let me drink.
- Though not considered ‘standard,’ this alternation to the conjugation norm is incredibly common in colloquial speech. ↩︎
- The 五段-conjugating ～さす・す are corruptions of the Classical Japanese renditions of the 一段-conjugating ～させる・せる, whose 終止形 would have been rendered as ～さす・す. This corruption is only valid for the 連用形, which in turn provides 言わせた・言わした (made…say) as possible forms, albeit with the latter sounding dialectal. Another contending issue as to why 見さす is marked as unnatural/incorrect is that 見さす may be interpreted as 見る + the supplementary verb ～止（さ）す to mean “to pause watching.” ↩︎