The Standard Markers に & と
In this lesson, we will learn how the particle に is used in various capacities for marking the standard of comparison, and in doing so, we will compare it to other case particles such as と and から.
The Standard Marker に
The case particle に is used to mark a standard/benchmark which then describes the nature or state of being of the subject.
1. 宮古空港は羽田空港に比べると、こぢんまりとした感じを受けますが、沖縄らしい建築で散歩して楽しかったです。
Miyako Airport feels small compared to Haneda Airport, but it was fun to stroll around and see the typical Okinawan architecture.
2. 諒君はすこし叔父さんに似てますね。
Ryo-kun looks a bit like his uncle, huh.
3. あいつは禅学者にも似合わない几帳面な男だ。
He’s a meticulous man, one who doesn’t seem fitting for a Zen scholar.
4. 池田さんこそ生徒会長に相応しい人物だと思います。
I think Ikeda-san is the most suitable person to be student council president.
This grammar point, as seen with Ex. 4 and the ones that follow, is heavily used with adjectives. From this angle, に’s ability as a general object marker (separate from that of a direct object marker) is apparent.
5. 「下戸」とはお酒が飲めない人、もしくはお酒に弱い人を指す言葉だ。
“Geko” is a word used to refer to someone who cannot drink alcohol or who [has a low tolerance of alcohol/is weak to alcohol].
6. 平屋の耐震性を高めるには、地震に強い土地を見極めることも大切です。
To improve the earthquake resistance of a single-story house, it is also important to identify land that is [earthquake-resistant/sturdy against earthquakes].
7. 食後にジェットコースターは体にきついですよ。
[Going on] a roller coaster after eating is tough on the body.
8. 健三は殆
んど考えの及ばないような眼付をして、極端に近い一種の個人主義の下に存在しているこの一家の経済状態を眺めた。
With an almost thoughtless gaze, Kenzo surveyed the financial of this family, which existed under a kind of individualism that bordered on the extreme.
The standard marker に also aids in showing the benchmark of knowledge, in which case it can translate as “about/on/in.” It is notably also present in the grammar pattern ～について with the definition of “about.”
9. 政治家や公務員は経済に疎い人が多いですか？
Are there many politicians and civil servants who are ignorant about economics?
10. どうしてそんなに日本史に詳しいの？
Why are you that knowledgeable in Japanese history?
11. 薬草の栽培・利用などについて詳しいです。
I’m knowledgeable about the cultivation and use of medicinal herbs.
The standard marker に’s ability to mark the standard of comparison is also important in defining the subject as being in accordance/equal to that said entity.
12. そのケーブル、規格に準じてます？
Is that cable [in accordance with/complies with] standards?
13. この動画は規約違反に当たりますか？
Does this video violate the terms and conditions?
14. 宇宙は物理法則に従っている。
The universe [is in accordance with its/follows the] laws of physics.
15. 「くさぐさ」や「うたごえ」のように一部に濁点が付くのは、連濁という規則に則っているからだ。
The reason why some words, such as “kusagusa” and “utagoe,” have a part that gets the dakuten is because they follow a set of rules known as rendaku.
At the times, the standard/benchmark marked by に is an entity that the subject is up against, in which case , に follows that “opponent” or even the entity of competition like games, battles, etc.
16.【試合・〇〇選手】に勝った。
I won [the match/against the athlete ##].
17. 後輩に負けた。
I lost to my junior.
18. 経験に勝るものはない。
There is nothing that beats experience.
19. 成績も他人に劣っている。
Even (my) grades are inferior to others.
This usage of the particle に is also related to its ability to mark the agent in a potential sentence. In this context, the agent is marked as the standard doer for which that ability is capable of being carried out, as opposed to other people.
20. 私にできることは正直決して多くありません。
Honestly, there is not much that I am capable of.
This ability of the particle に to denote the agent also appears in existential sentences in general, which also ties back to what we have seen thus far with adjectival predicates with adjectives pertaining to quantity existing (Exs. 20, 22).
21. 私には夢がある。
I have a dream.
22. ピラミッドにはまだまだ謎が多い。
There are still many, many mysteries had with the pyramids.
Comparison with と= “With”
The case particle と, in the sense of “with,” may also indicate the object of comparison much like に. The primary difference is that the comparison is felt to be an equal comparison of both references, whereas に is a stilted comparison, denoting what it marks as the basis/standard for said comparison.
23a. XをYと比べる。
23b. XをYに比べる。
23a. To compare X with Y.
23b. To compare X to Y.
24. 彼と同じ考えです。
That is the same idea as his.
25. 人間と動物との違いについて詳しく説明します。
I will describe in detail about the differences between people and animals.
In Ex. 25, the first と is the parallel particle と meaning “and,” while the second と is the case particle と meaning “with.”
As for the verb 似る meaning “to resemble,” the nature of the comparison ultimately decides whether に or と is used, and grammaticality judgments are largely based on what is deemed to be a logical relationship. Are X and Y worthy of equal comparison (→ と), or is one element being directly related to (→ に)?
In other words, whereas と marks one side of a mutual relation(ship) with no particular reason, に shows a standard of comparison which follows some logic. Although both options produce a comparison between X and Y, in the case of に, X’s state is inherently reliant on Y’s state. Consider the following.
26a その父と子は似ている。〇
That father and child resemble (each other).
26b.その子はお父さんと似ている。X/??1
26c. その子はお父さんに似ている。〇
The child resembles his father.
26d. その父は息子と似ている。◎
26e. その父は息子に似ている。X/??2
The father resembles his child.
27. お父さんにそっくりだね！
You’re just like your father!
28. 彼は親父とそっくりだね3。
He’s a carbon copy of his father.
29. その年と比べるに値するほどの売上なのですね。
That’s a sales figure worthy of comparison with that year.
In Ex. 29, the use of both と and に in their respective capacity to form a comparison is on full display, but it is important to not forget that と may simply still denote “with” which a relationship is had, which is a feature not shared with に.
30. 僕とは君は、そんなに親しい間柄ではなかった。
Literally: You, you were not in that close of a relationship with me.
You and I were not that close.
31. 私が犯人と紛らわしいとでも思ったのですかね？
Did you think I would be confused with the culprit?
Comparison “From” から
Next, we will look at how even the case particle から may be used when created a comparison, but the basis of comparison is made from the opposite direction as either に or と. First, consider the following.
32a. 駅から近い 〇
32b. 駅に近い。◎
It is close to the train station.
33a. 駅から遠い。◎
33b. 駅に遠い。X/???4
It is far from the train station.
It may come off as strange that 32a would be grammatical, but the reasoning is that the location, 駅, is not where the speaker is located. Rather, 駅 is a “starting point” separated from the speaker, and what is being compared to it, distance-wise, is close to that starting point.
Sometimes, this distinction can be quite important. Take for example the context behind Ex. 34. In 2018, a volcanic eruption occurred near a ski resort in Kusatsu. With the location of the eruption being very pertinent to the conversation, other places nearby but removed from that locale specifically are at the forefront of discussion.
34. 草津町のスキー場では、噴火した所から近いゲレンデ以外では滑ることができます。
As for the ski resort in Kusatsu Town, there are places aside from the slopes that are close to the eruption site where you can ski at.
These instances of から denote a comparison which does stilt one way or another, but the directionality is still very much the opposite of に・と. However, this does not mean that から can be used to make a comparison which states that “Y” is more Z [predicate] than “X,” which none of the comparison markers thus far can attest to. Here, it is not a matter of a basis of comparison being emphasized. One entity is actually better/worse in some regard than another.
The particle which marks “than” in such a comparison is the case particle より. Note that in contexts like in Ex. 36, より may translate to “from,” but the comparison made still involves a state that is better/worse “than” some reference point. In the context of Ex. 36, “yesterday’s” and “today’s” patient counts are being compared.
35. 患者Aさんは患者Bさんより容体が悪化している。
Patient A is in a worse condition than Patient B.
36. 患者数は昨日より１２人増えた。
The number of patients rose 12 people from yesterday.
In recent years, the particle から is being seen in contexts such as Ex. 36, in which case a previous point in time or statistical data is chosen as a starting point for a directional change that is then stated, and this has actually been perpetuated most notably when reporting on rises in COVID-19 cases.
37. 今日の新規感染者数は昨日の１３００人｛から ？・より ◎｝２５０人多く増加しました。
The number of new infections today is 250 more than yesterday’s 1,300. (w/ より)
Starting from yesterday’s 1300 number of cases, the new infections today has increased by 250 people. (w/ から)
The Proportion Marker に
When expressing a quantitative ratio using a certain number as the base number for comparison, that base number (the denominator) is marked with に.
38. うちの子は家の中では排泄を一切しないため、一日に３回散歩につれて行っています。
My dog never defecates inside the house, so I take it on walks three times a day.
39. 自動車業界は100年に一度の大変革の時代に入った。
The automotive industry has entered a once-in-a-century period of great transformation.
40. ドイツで起業した3人に1人が移民という計算になる。
This means that one in three people who have started a business in Germany has been an immigrant.
The proportion marker に does not necessarily need to be used in a ratio, however. When used with word 倍 (times), に marks the “x” of times, which is still the denominator as in the “total number/amount” of which a statistic is expressed.
41. 人口は過去４年間に３倍に増加しました。
The population has increased three times in the last four years.
参照
比較基準を表すカラ格についての一考察 by 松本曜
- In a context in which a commonality is the topic of discussion, and a “son” and “that son’s father” are merely the X and Y, and the resulting comparison is not stilted in either’s favor, Ex. 26b. could be grammatical. ↩︎
- In a context in which the basis of comparison is unequivocally stilted toward the son, for whatever reason, the semantic weight of に would be rationalized, thus allowing Ex. 26e to be grammatical. ↩︎
- そっくりだ is not entirely synonymous with 似ている, which affects the grammaticality of its affinity to に・と alike. Because it indicates a 100% likeness, both are plausible, with に directly implying the cause of said relationship being stilted to one side of the comparison. ↩︎
- In older Japanese, as early as Early Modern Japanese, ～に遠い was also acceptable. In those instances, に simply marked the location where the referent existed far away, which would, inevitably, imply a completely different sense of directionality than から, being the resulting point of a path taken. This can still be found in the proverb:
東に近ければ西に遠い。
Literally: When the east is nearest you, the west is now far away.
↩︎