The Locational Marker に
The particle に is another fundamental particle, encompassing so many important usages that we will be exploring individually while also relating each one to other usages, which as you will see, bounce off each other.
Contrary to mainstream approaches in Japanese education, before going into any of its specific functions, we will begin with a rather thought-provoking notion, which is that に is the particle of Establishment1. The reason for capitalizing this word reflects how macro of an idea this is: に pertains to state of being of the subject and how that state of being manifests, and those implications vary greatly in a seemingly endless train of logic that leads every which way depending on the kind of predicate involved.
Of course, we must start somewhere, and so in this first lesson on に, we will discuss its role as a locational marker in three interrelated scenarios.
①As a locational marker.
②As a directional (the transition of a location) marker with verbs of motion.
③As an indirect object marker with verbs with any degree of directionality.
①Locational Marker
■With Existential Predicates
Resting on the notion that, in the bigger picture, the particle に pertains to Establishment, if it is one facet of its use that defines it as such the most, it would undoubtedly be its role as the locational marker with existential predicates.
Existential predicates are represented by verbs such as ある, いる, おる, etc., which indicate that something or someone exists. When に is used in conjunction with these verbs, it marks the location where said noun it marks exists. That location, therefore, is where it is established. When translating this function into English, it may translate as “in,” “on,” or even “at.”
1. この庭に花はない。
There aren’t any flowers in this garden (,but there might be other things).
2. 地図はどこにありますか。
Where is the map?
3. 玄関に犬が一匹いる。
There is a dog at the door.
4. テイラー君は台所の戸口にいます。
Taylor is in the kitchen doorway.
5. 私の学校には韓国人の先生がいます。
In my school, there is a teacher who is Korean.
6. 彼女は男の子に人気がある。
Literally: As for her, she has popularity among boys.
She is popular with boys.
7. 彼には子どもがいる。
Literally: As for him, child(ren) reside with him.
He has a child(ren).
■With Action Verbal Predicates
When paired with an action verbal predicate, the particle に may indicate the location of said action, and in doing so, establishes said noun as where that action is fixated. This can be as literal as hanging a picture onto a wall to placing anything anywhere.
8. 都市にたくさんの建物を建てる。
To build a lot of buildings in the city.
9. 椅子に座る。
To sit in a chair.
10. 壁に棚を作りました。
I built a shelf on the wall.
Say you wish to describe where you work; it may come as no surprise that に marks the location as to where that established state of being of yours resides. Such contexts provide a bridging context between existential predicates and action predicates.
11. 銀行に勤めています。
I work at the bank.
12. 旅館に泊まりました。
I stayed at a ryokan.
This logic also pertains to verbs like 乗る (to ride), as in Japanese, the noun marked by に which is the mode of transportation is where one attaches oneself, and the sense of directionality is a byproduct of that Establishment.
13. バスに乗りました。
I rode the bus.
■With Static Verbal Predicates
When paired with a static verbal/adjectival predicate, the subject of the sentence does not necessarily exert any willpower over the situation, for the predicate itself pertains to its state of being. What に marks, in turn, is where that state of being is established.
14. 氷は水に浮く。
Ice floats on water.
15. 東京に住んでいますか。
Do you live in Tokyo?
16. この種の象はインドに生息する。
This species of elephant inhabits India.
17. 日本はアジアに位置している。
Japan is located in Asia.
18. コケは森に見える。
Moss can be seen in forests.
19. 私の家は駅に近いです。
My house is close to the train station.
At times, of this is that when directionality is involved, that motion is intrinsically tied to where that relationship resides. For instance, the sun must always rise in the east and set in the west. It does not willfully do so: it just does. The verbs “to rise” and “to set” are examples of static verbal predicates as they pertain to states rather than the purposeful act of an agent.
20. 太陽は東に昇ります。
The sun (always) rises in the east.
21. 太陽は西に沈みます。
The sun sets in the west.
②Directional Marker
What is usually meant by the particle に being a directional marker in a more obvious sense is when it is paired with verbal predicates composed of motion verbs. Though verbs such as 昇る and 沈む do exhibit a degree of directionality, they are not of the same vein as verbs such as 行く (to go) and 来る (to come), as these verbs imply that there is a destination to head for.
By marking the destination of a motion verb, に establishes that the state of being of the subject is in motion to that location.
22. 私達はニューヨークに着きました。
We arrived in New York City.
203. テイラー君は自分の部屋に戻った。
Taylor returned to his own room.
24. 家に帰ったよ。
I (just) got home.
25. バスが来なくて、授業に遅れました。
The bus didn’t come, and so I was late to class.
26. 今期の利益は百億円に達しました。
This term’s profits reached2 ten billion yen.
27. 彼女は駅に到着しました。
She arrived at the station.
28. 仕事に出かけました。
I headed to work.
29. 友だちがカリフォルニアに来ます。
My friend is coming to California.
30. 学生たちは教室に集まりました。
The students assembled in the classroom.
31. 離れたところに逃げました。
I ran away to a place away (from the situation).
Closely related to this function, に may still indicate directionality of an action even with transitive verbs such as 振る (to wave) when paired with a noun indicating direction.
32. 手を左右に振った。
I waved my hands left and right.
At times, the destination which に marks may, in fact, be a resulting state. Though of the same logic as motion verbs, there is a figurative dimension at play in which the end point is felt more as a consequence rather than an intended goal. Indeed, we see that in Ex. 33, 陥る (to fall into) heavily leans toward the negative outcome of ‘into what’ more so than it indicates ‘as to where’ the subject is going.
33. 私は困難に陥りました。
I fell into hardship.
③Indirect Object Marker
Much can be said as to how に functions as an object marker, but to simply things for now, we will first focus on how it does so from the perspective of directionality.
First, let’s consider how to say “to meet X.” In Japanese, ～に会う is used as opposed to ～を会う, which is notably entirely ungrammatical.
34a. 彼に会う。〇
34b. 彼を会う。X
To meet him.
The reason for this is that the person who one is meeting is viewed not as a direct object, as is the case in English, but as an indirect object. While in English an indirect object is defined as a word which receives a direct object3, in Japanese an indirect object may be best interpreted as an object which is NOT a direct object4, that being an object which directly receives an action – so as not to be restricted by the notion of give-and-take but also to explain those scenarios as well when に must inevitably appear. In Ex. 34, 彼 is both a destination and an entity which agrees with the notion of “meeting.” What, then, does 彼 receive: your presence; it is this notion which is embedded in the semantics of the verb 会う.
Now, let’s take a look at other scenarios in which に is clearly used as an indirect object marker. Notice how the noun which constitutes as the direct object and the noun which constitutes as the indirect object may flip places due to Japanese’s flexible word order.
35 私はいとこに手紙を書きました。
I wrote a letter to my cousin.
36. ケイトさんはテイラー君にチョコをくれました。
Kate-san gave Taylor-kun chocolate.
37. 嘘のことをお客さんに伝える。
To tell a lie to a customer.
In these three examples, the indirect object ought to be viewed as the recipient of the predicate. For example, in Ex. 37, the recipient of the subject’s lie is the customer.
Whenever a sentence does not have a [Noun + を] complement, learners often get confused as to whether what they are looking at is a(n indirect) object or not. Ultimately, the nature of the predicate dictates this.
In the bigger picture, に sets up the Establishment for which the predicate is true. If the predicate is existential in nature, then the location marked by に is simply where that state of being resides, with no further dynamic implied. If the predicate indicates a transition, then the noun marked by に is either a destination/end point/result – whether that be a location/outcome with intransitive verbs or a recipient with transitive verbs. If the predicate indicates a transfer or for which there is an addressee/recipient, then に marks an indirect object.
In the sentences below, the verbal and adjectival predicates vary wildly in their semantics5, but they all share the commonality of following under that final category in which the object marked by に is what is being addressed.
38. 君に電話だよ。(Masculine; casual)
There’s a phone call for you.
39. ゲームに熱中する子に対して親ができることは？
What is it that parents can do to confront their kid(s) who is engrossed in games?
40. 質問に答えてください。
Literally: Please answer to the question.
Please answer the question.
41. 要求に応じる。
To comply with a demand.
42. 先生に聞いてみてください。
Please try asking Sensei.
43. 警戒心の強い犬はたまに知らない人に噛みつくことがある。
Dogs with high guard occasionally bite people they do not know.
44. 周囲の人に頼りますか。
Do you rely on people around you?
45. 試合に勝ったよ。
I won the match.
46. 助詞に関する情報を検索しました。
I searched for information regarding particles.
47. 子供に優しい夫が欲しいです。
I want a husband who is nice to kids.
48. 私自身は結構お酒に弱いです。
I myself am particularly weak to alcohol.
49. セスさんはカタルーニャ語にも詳しいですよ。
Seth-san is also knowledgeable about Catalan.
50. にきびに効く薬があります。
There is medicine that works on pimples.
- The notion of Establishment encompasses both spatial, temporal, and the directional state in which the noun marked by に represents that the subject finds itself. In this lesson, only its spatial and directional senses are touched on, but once we begin learning about time phrases, we will see how the temporal aspect of に defines when the predicate is true. ↩︎
- This example demonstrates that the “destination” need not be a physical place but a numerical figure that is to be reached. ↩︎
- On the grounds of English semantics, “to meet John” does not indicate that John is the recipient of anything; even though English speakers could certainly rationalize how one’s presence might be viewed as so in the Japanese light, that is irrelevant for “to meet” is defined as “to come into the presence of X” rather than “to go provide one’s presence to X.” This is precisely the logical difference between English and Japanese which explains the presence of に. ↩︎
- Because of how restrictive the term “indirect object” is even in the context of English grammar, Japanese grammarians tend to describe its use more vaguely as an ‘object marker,’ preferring to describe how it does so in specific circumstances, and in the event a scenario lines up with what would be known specifically as an ‘indirect object’ in Western grammar, then its labeling as such becomes less problematic in light of that context. This can be confirmed by how Usage 3 discussed in this lesson lines up with this entry in this online Japanese dictionary, which simply defines this usage as follows: 動作・作用の行われる対象・相手を表す (to signify the object and/or addressee of an action and/or effect which is taken place). ↩︎
- As has already been demonstrated with the verb 会う, there are plenty of instances in which objects are marked with に rather than を which seem strange to the English ear. Take, for instance, Ex. 39. Though in “to bite people” the word “people” functions as the direct object, the “direct object” in the Japanese sentence is “the bite” itself, albeit it is not overtly mentioned. Note that even in Japanese grammar, there are situations in which verbs do demonstrate a degree of interchangeability between を and に with a handful of verbs that waver in how their objects are internalized in relation to the predicate, which will be a topic for a future lesson. ↩︎