Introduction to Japanese　

Introduction to Japanese　
日本語学習入門にほんごがくしゅうにゅうもん

Lesson 0 showcases what ought to be known about the language prior to beginning Japanese studies with いまび. Think of this lesson as a reference guide rather than a list of concepts to fully grasp or master immediately. It introduces ideas and topics that will be explored throughout the curriculum, so let’s use it to preview what lies ahead.

Japanese: A Japonic Language　
日琉語族にちりゅうごぞくの言語げんご・日本語にほんご

Japanese belongs to the “Japonic” language family, which comprises Japanese and several minority languages spoken within Japan. Native speakers of these languages find fellow Japonic languages much easier to learn than English. Interestingly, all speakers of these minority Japonic languages are also fluent in Japanese. The vocabulary of these languages are heavily influenced by Chinese languages, but they are not related to them.

Japanese’s placement in its own language family explains how any aspect of the language—phraseology, grammar structures, etc.—can be quite different from English. As a result, direct translations often produce awkward, unnatural, or even incorrect interpretations of the original Japanese. This highlights the importance of learning Japanese within its own context.

The Diversity of Dialects　
方言ほうげんの多様性たようせい

Japanese has dozens of dialects, which are variations of the language that developed over centuries of isolation, both internally and externally. The most widely understood form is Standard Japanese (hyōjungo 標準語ひょうじゅんご¹), which is largely based on the speech of Tokyo and serves as the language of instruction. Japanese speakers are quite familiar with their language’s rich dialectal diversity, as certain dialects are prominently featured in media, such as Kansai dialects in comedy.

To illustrate just how diverse these dialects can be, even simple phrases like “what are you doing?” vary significantly by dialect.

Dialect	Japanese Script	Pronunciation
Tokyo Dialect 東京弁	何なにしてるの？	Nani shiteru no?
Kansai Dialect 関西弁	何なにしとるん？	Nani shitoru n?
Nagoya Dialect 名古屋弁	何なにしとんの？	Nani shiton’ no?
Fukuoka Dialect 福岡弁	何なにしよっと？	Nan shiyotto?
Nagasaki Dialect 長崎弁	何なんばしよっと？	Nam ba shiyotto?

Whether you wish to play video games, read manga, or watch anime, you will inevitably encounter dialectal variation.

Japanese Pronunciation　
日本語にほんごの発音はつおん

Words typically follow a simple “consonant + vowel” format, with few exceptions. The language features five vowels—/a/ (ah), /i/ (ee), /u/ (oo), /e/ (eh), /o/ (oh) – and fifteen core² consonants—/m/, /p/, /b/, /n/, /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /r/ /y/, /k/, /g/, /w/, /ɴ³/, /h/. While these consonants are similar to their English counterparts, some subtle differences in pronunciation may be challenging to both perceive and master.

As a beginner, pronouncing words as they are spelled in English letters is generally acceptable. This approach will allow you to prioritize learning words and grammar while gradually training your ear to hear the nuances of Japanese pronunciation.

Japanese words are traditionally described as being composed of “morae,” a distinct concept from the notion of syllables. A mora is a unit of sound that is equivalent to one beat. Every “beat” is perceived as being equal in duration. In turn, Japanese distinguishes between short and long vowels as well as short (single) and long (double) consonants. Short consonants/vowels count as one mora, and long consonants/vowels count as two morae.

Koko ここ here	Kōkō 高校こうこう high school	Kōko 公庫こうこ finance corporation
Kokō 孤高ここう solitary	Kokko 国庫こっこ treasury	Kokkō 国交こっこう diplomatic relations

※Macrons indicate long vowels.

Here are some everyday phrases to read aloud. Do not worry about mispronouncing them or sounding perfect just yet. We will cover the pronunciation of vowels and consonants in detail over the next three lessons.

Phrase 表現ひょうげん	Japanese Script 表記ひょうき	Pronunciation 発音はつおん
Good morning	お早はようございます	O-hayō-gozaimasu
Good afternoon	こんにちは	Kon’nichi-wa
Good evening	今晩こんばんは	Komban-wa
Good night	お休やすみなさい	O-yasumi-nasai
How are you?	お元気げんきですか	O-genki desu-ka?
Nice to meet you	初はじめまして	Hajimemashite
Thank you	ありがとうございます	Arigatō-gozaimasu
Yes	はい	Hai
No	いいえ	Īe
I’m sorry; excuse me	すみません	Sumimasen

Japanese also possesses a pitch accent system. In the Standard Japanese pitch accent system, each mora is assigned either a low or high pitch. Pitch allocation can largely be explained by four distinct patterns:

1. Accent on the first mora: The pitch starts high on the first mora, then it drops on the next mora—leveling out. 
2. Accent in the middle: The pitch rises and reaches its highest point on the accented mora, then it drops immediately after.
3. Accent on the last mora: The first mora is low, with the remaining morae pronounced at a high pitch. The pitch drops only when something is attached to the word, like a particle.
4. No accented mora: Pitch rises and is maintained high throughout the word.

An accented mora is described as a rise in pitch that is immediately followed by a downstep in pitch. A downstep describes the drop in pitch after the final high-pitch mora in a phrase.

Pitch accent is often described as being beneficial in differentiating homophones (words that sound the same), but in reality, the allocation of pitch is arbitrary, and there are just as many examples of pitch distinguishing between homophones as there are examples of homophones possessing the same pitch pattern.

Pattern	1 Mora	2 Morae	3 Morae	4 Morae
①Accent on First Mora	H(L) [há↓] (tooth)	HL [á↓mè] (rain)	HLL [dé↓ǹkì ] (electricity)	HLLL [há↓mìǹgù] (humming)
②Accent in Middle	∅	∅	LHL(L) [kùzú↓sù] (to demolish)	LHHL(L)/LHLL(L) [sàíká↓ì] (last place)
③Accent on Last Mora	∅	LH(L) [shìká ↓] (deer)	LHH(L) [hàdómé ↓] (restraint)	LHHH(L) [imóótó↓] (little sister)
④No Accent	L(H) [hà] (leaf)	LH(H) [àmé ] (candy)	LHH(H) [àbúrá] (oil)	LHHH(H) [sàíkáí] (reunion)

※Accented morae as marked in bold, and downsteps are marked by ↓.

Japanese Grammar　
日本語にほんごの文法ぶんぽう

Japanese grammar differs significantly from English grammar. What may be normal in English grammar will almost surely result in incorrect Japanese.

Word Order　語順ごじゅん

The basic word order of Japanese is SOV (subject-object-verb). 

• Subject: The “what” of the sentence, which is either “who⁴” is doing an action or “what” holds a certain attribute or effect; more than anything, it is what the predicate⁵ describes.
• Object: The entity that the action is directed toward.
• Verb: An action, occurrence, or mode of being. 

Although SOV is the basic word order, the subject and object may flip if the object is deemed more significant. Additionally, a Japanese sentence can overtly lack a subject, object(s), or both its subject and object(s) if those elements are deemed obvious in context.⁶

SOV	OSV
クマが漁師りょうしの魚さかなを盗とった。 Kuma-ga ryōshi-no sakana-wo totta. Gloss7: Bear-subject marker fisherman-possessive marker fish-object marker took. Translation: (A/The) bear took (a/the) fisherman’s fish.	漁師りょうしの魚さかなをクマが盗とった。 Ryōshi-no sakana-wo kuma-ga totta. Gloss: Fisherman-possessive marker fish-object marker bear-subject marker took. Translation: (A/The) bear took (a/the) fisherman’s fish.
SV	OV
クマが盗とった。 Kuma-ga totta. Gloss: Bear-subject marker took. Translation: (A/The) bear took (it/them).	漁師りょうしの魚さかなを盗とった。  Ryōshi-no sakana-wo totta. Gloss: Fisherman-possessive marker fish-object marker took.   Translation: (subject in context) took (a/the) fisherman’s fish.
V
盗とった。 Totta. Gloss: Took. Translation: (subject in context) took (it/them).

Other observations that can be made from these examples include: 

・Japanese lacks articles (a, an, the). 
・Japanese lacks grammatical number, which is the distinction between singular and plural forms. 
・Japanese lacks grammatical gender, which in many languages is the distinction between masculine or feminine forms.

Order of Recognition　
認知にんちの順序じゅんじょ

Japanese word order is not a free-for-all like it is often described. In fact, most sentences follow a predictable ordering of information, which is as follows: 

TOPIC + TIME + LOCATION + SUBJECT + INDIRECT OBJECT +
DIRECT OBJECT + VERB/ADJECTIVE (PREDICATE) 

• Topic: any detail that the speaker emphasizes as being central to the discussion.
• Time: expressions such as “today,” “tomorrow,” etc.
• Location: Phrases such as “at Tokyo,” “in China,” etc.
• Indirect object: The recipient of an action, such as in “to him.” 
• Direct object: The entity that is primarily affected by the action of a verb, such as in “to throw a ball.” 

The topic frames the conversation, followed by time to establish when things occur, then location to describe where events take place. The speaker may then introduce the subject or discuss what is being acted upon via direct and/or indirect objects, eventually leading to the verb or adjective (predicate).

How does this compare with English?

i. [鈴木先生すずきせんせいは][毎日まいにち][生徒せいとに][日本語にほんごを][教おしえています]。
[Suzuki-sensei-wa] [mainichi] [seito-ni] [Nihongo-wo] [oshiete-i-masu].
Gloss: [Suzuki-teacher-topic.marker] [every.day] [student(s)-indirect.object.marker] [Japanese-direct.object.marker] [teach-ing-politeness.marker].
Translation: Sensei Suzuki teaches Japanese to (his/her) student(s) every day.

Not only are familiar parts of a sentence arranged differently in Japanese compared to English, but some features, like the topic marker, have no direct equivalent in English.

Moreover, as we have seen, Japanese allows for sentences to be complete without including every possible element. While many sentences can have all the same elements present as they would in English (ii.), this is by no means a guarantee (iii.).

ii. [今朝けさ][地震じしんが][起おきました]。
[Kesa] [jishin-ga] [okimashita].
Gloss: [This.morning] [earthquake-subject.marker] [occurred].
Translation: An earthquake occurred this morning.

iii. 今朝けさから揺ゆれ始はじめた。(Subject Omitted)
[Kesa-kara] [yurehajimeta].
Gloss: [This.morning-since] [shake-started].
Translation: (The ground) started shaking as of this morning.

A Topic-Prominent Language　
主題優勢言語しゅだいゆうせいげんご

Japanese is said to be a “topic-prominent” language because it prioritizes details central to the conversation in its word order. Once the topic has been introduced, though, it need not be repeated, and it is often omitted after the first few instances. Interestingly, it is also possible for multiple topics to exist simultaneously for various grammatical purposes. 

The topic does not have to be the same entity as the subject. However, when they are the same entity, the subject cannot be stated in tandem. This rule prevents redundancy. In place of the subject is an unspoken understanding – denoted by ø – that it is still grammatically present in the underlying sentence structure.

iv. [私わたしは][今日きょう]、[駅えきで][ø][友達ともだちに][本ほんを][上あげました]。
[Watashi-wa] [kyō], [eki-de] [(ø-ga)] [tomodachi-ni] [hon-wo] [agemashita].
Gloss: [I-topic.marker] [today] [train.station-at] [(unspoken subject)] [friend-indirect.object.marker] [book-object.marker] [gave]. 
Translation: I gave a book to a friend at the train station today. 

When the topic and subject are not the same entity, the sentence follows a “as for X, Y…” pattern. This is not a one-size-fits-all translation, so how it is ultimately translated can vary significantly depending on the context.

v. [象ぞうは][鼻はなが][長ながい]。
[Zō-wa] [hana-ga] [nagai].
Gloss: [Elephant(s)-topic.marker] [nose-subject.marker] [long].
Translation: Elephants have long noses. 

Left-Branching　
主要部終端型しゅようぶしゅうたんがた（左枝分ひだりえだわかれ構造こうぞう）

Every phrase has a “head” and the possibility of there being a “modifier.” The “head” of a phrase is the element that determines the syntactic function of the phrase as a whole. In “the smart cat,” the head is “cat” because “cat” is the word that determines what the phrase means. A “modifier” provides additional information about the head. In “the smart cat,” “the” and “smart” are both modifiers of the head element “cat.” 

In Japanese, modifier(s) always appear to the left of the head. This phenomenon is known as left-branching.

vi. 日本語にほんごの本ほん
Nihongo-no hon
A/the Japanese book

In English, however, modifier(s) may appear to the left or to the right of the head. In the following two phrases, the modifier(s) are encased in (), while the head is encased in [].

vii. (The) (Japanese) [book]
viii. (The) [book] (in Japanese)

Japanese consistently exhibits left-branching no matter how long or complex modifiers may be. In English, both factors determine whether a sentence exhibits left-branching or, conversely, right-branching.

[Possessive Modifiers: Both Languages Exhibit Left-Branching]

ix. [私わたしの[主人しゅじんの[友達ともだちの[可愛かわいい仔犬こいぬ]]]
Watashi-no-shujin-no-tomodachi-no-kawaii-koinu
Gloss: [I-possessive.marker [husband-possessive.marker [friend-possessive.marker cute puppy]]]
Translation: My husband’s friend’s adorable puppy

[Participial Modifiers: Japanese → Left-Branching, English → Right-Branching]

x. [[学校がっこうから]帰かえった子供こどもたちが][外そとで][遊あそんでいる]。
[[Gakkō-kara] kaetta kodomo-tachi-ga] [soto-de] [asonde-iru].
Gloss: [[School-from] returned kid-plural-subject marker] [outside-at] [play-ing].
Translation: (The) children who came back from school are playing outside.
Participle: [who came back from school] = 学校がっこうから帰かえった gakkō-kara kaetta

In Japanese, not only are participial modifiers placed to the left of their head, the elements which comprise said participial modifiers must also follow this left-branching principle. Meaning, if any adjectival phrase were to modify 学校 gakkō (school) in the Japanese sentence, it would appear to the left.

Note, that the small affixes sprinkled in the Japanese example sentences which denote grammatical functions (“particles,” see below) are not considered to be “modifiers” of the head but, rather, extensions of the head itself.

Macro-To-Micro
マクロ視点してんからミクロ視点してんへ

Japanese often organizes information from broad details to specific ones, which is called ‘macro-to-micro’ ordering. This is particularly common when giving details about time, place, or people.

①Telling Time

xi. ２０２４年ねん８月がつ第一週土曜日午前だいいしゅうどようびごぜん９時半じはん２０秒びょう
Nisen’nijūyonen hachigatsu dai’isshū doyо̄bi gozen kuji-han nijubyо̄
9:30:20 AM on the first Saturday of August, 2024

②Creating Addresses

xii. 東京都大田区蒲田〇丁目とうきょうとおおたくかまたまるちょうめ
Tо̄kyо̄-to О̄ta-ku Kamata maru-chо̄me
District # of Katama in О̄ta Ward of Tokyo Prefecture

③Forming Names

xiii. 山田奈央やまだなお
Yamada Nao
Nao Yamada

Agglutination　膠着性こうちゃくせい

Agglutination is the process of creating complex words by stringing morphemes (units of meaning) together into indivisible chains. The individual morphemes remain easily identifiable for their purpose.

Japanese is known to be a highly agglutinative language (kōchakugo 膠着語こうちゃくご ). In Japanese, agglutination is governed by a system of bases and endings. For every base that exists, several endings exist to attach to it. Each ending then has its own set of bases to potentially keep the chain going. 

Consequently, “I did not want to be forced to eat” is expressed as one word made up of multiple morphemes. Endings within these chains exhibit fixed word order, meaning the morphemes cannot be shuffled around.

xiv. 食たべさせられたくありませんでした
Tabe-sase-rare-taku-ari-mase-n-deshi-ta 
Gloss: Eat-causative-passive-want-to.be-politeness.marker-negation-politeness-marker-past.tense
Translation: Did not want to be made to eat

The Japanese conjugation system utilizes six bases with which endings then attach based on mutual functionality. These six bases are as follows:

1. Mizenkei 未然形みぜんけい (Irrealis Form): Used to indicate actions that have yet to happen.
2. Ren’yōkei 連用形れんようけい (Continuative Form): Used to indicate actions that are (being) carried out.
3. Shūshikei 終止形しゅうしけい (Terminal/Predicative Form): Used to mark the end of a complete sentence. 
4. Rentaikei 連体形れんたいけい (Attributive Form):  Used to allow conjugatable parts of speech to directly modify nominal phrases.
5. Kateikei 仮定形かていけい (Hypothetical Form): Used to create hypothetical statements.
6. Meireikei 命令形めいれいけい (Imperative Form): Used to create commands.

Not using proper Japanese grammatical terms can hinder your learning experience. Without this terminology, it becomes difficult to discuss grammar concepts with native speakers or to conduct effective research in Japanese. Familiarizing yourself with these terms will greatly enhance your understanding and ability to engage with the language on a deeper level.

Name Ordering　
人ひとの呼よび方かた

Native Japanese names follow macro-to-micro ordering. For foreign names, however, Japanese tends to honor the name ordering of the language of origin. Whatever your name is, that is what it is in Japanese, albeit with a Japanese-friendly pronunciation. As for Chinese or Korean names, their Kanji spellings are retained, and it is common to honor the original pronunciation over a Japanese-like pronunciation as humanly possible.

Also peculiar to English speakers is how titles come after a given name. While titles indicate social rank, the same title can be shared by countless people that fit said role. Therefore, names are treated as attributes to said titles, not the other way around. This results in phrases like, Obama-motodaitо̄ryо̄ オバマ元大統領もとだいとうりょう (literally, “Obama Former President”).

三島由紀夫みしまゆきお Mishima Yukio Yukio Mishima	畑中先生はたなかせんせい Hatanaka-sensei Teacher/Sensei Hatanaka	習近平しゅうきんぺい Shū Kimpei Xi Jinping
大阪おおさかなおみ Ōsaka Naomi Naomi Osaka	伊藤社長いとうしゃちょう/rt> Itō-shachō Company President Itoh	ラファエル・グティエレス Rafaeru Gutieresu Rafael Gutierrez

Inversion　
倒置法とうちほう

Japanese grammar typically places the predicate (verb/adjective/copula) at the end of a sentence. However, there are instances when the predicate comes first with the rest of the sentence stated as an after-statement. This phenomenon is known as inversion, which is often employed in music and poetry. Inversion can also naturally occur in everyday conversation for dramatic effect or when supplementing what the speaker would have otherwise intended to say first had the words occurred to them sooner.

xv. 叶かなえ、私わたしの願ねがいよ。
Kanae, watashi-no negai-yo.
Gloss: Come.true I-genitive.marker wish-exclamation.marker
Translation: Come true, oh my wishes.

Omission　
省略しょうりゃく

Japanese allows for words whose roles can be deduced from context to be omitted from a sentence. The most famous instance of this is the tendency to drop pronouns such as “I” and “you” – a phenomenon known as “pro-dropping.” 

xvi. お名前なまえは何なんですか。(No Overt Second-Person Pronoun Present)
O-namae-wa nan desu-ka?
Gloss: Honorific.prefix-name-as.for, what is-question.marker. 
Translation: What is your name?

Omissions should never be interpreted as being absent in the underlying sentence structure. If omitted information cannot be retrieved and correctly interpreted by a speaker, said omission is consequentially ungrammatical. Thus, Japanese grammar requires its speakers to pay close attention to context to allow for such omissions to be possible. In return, omission allows for literary devices not found in English, adding unique layers of nuancing to Japanese discourse. As such, proper omission is crucial to sounding natural.

Speech Registers　
文体ぶんたいの種類しゅるい

One of the most challenging aspects of Japanese, even for native speakers, is mastering speech register. “Speech register” refers to the way one’s manner of speaking changes depending on the relationship with the listener(s). Japanese has five basic speech registers, each affecting how words and phrases are expressed. In some cases, these changes can be quite significant.

Speech Register	Speaker-Listener Relationship	Forms of Ex. “To Say”
Honorific Speech (Sonkeigo 尊敬語そんけいご)	Used to show utmost respect to the listener.	Osshaimasu Honorific Polite Form Iwaremasu Light Honorific Polite Form
Polite Speech (Teineigo 丁寧語ていねいご)	Used to establish respect among equals who are not necessarily family or friends.	Iimasu  Polite Form
Humble Speech (Kenjōgo 謙譲語けんじょうご)	Used to lower one’s status to show utmost respect to the listener.	Mōshiagemasu Super Humble Polite Form Mōshimasu  Humble Polite Form
Plain Speech (Jōtaigo 常体語じょうたいご))	Plain speech (basic) forms play grammatical purposes beyond register, but it also constitutes the register used among friends and family.	Yū Plain Form
Vulgar Speech (Bubetsugo 侮蔑語ぶべつご)	Used to degrade the listener.	Iiyagaru Nukasu  Vulgar Forms

All verbal expressions in Japanese vary according to speech register. Learners are typically first introduced to polite speech (teineigo 丁寧語ていねいご), as it is used in public and formal interactions. However, the basic form of any phrase comes from plain speech (jōtaigo 常体語じょうたいご). To create polite forms, plain speech forms must be conjugated appropriately. Therefore, when learning conjugations, both plain and polite versions are taught side by side.

Terminology Note: “Plain speech” is normally referred to by kihonkei 基本形きほんけい (basic form) or futsūtai 普通体ふつうたい (direct style).

Parts of Speech　
品詞ひんし

There are twelve parts of speech in Japanese that fall under two categories: independent words (jiritsugo 自立語じりつご) or ancillary words (fuzokugo 付属語ふぞくご). Independent words are words that can stand alone, whereas ancillary words are words that cannot stand alone. Parts of speech can then be categorized based on their ability or lack thereof to conjugate. 

Part of Speech	Definition	Independent?	Conjugatable?
Verbs (Dōshi 動詞どうし)	A word that describes an action, state, or occurrence. Ex. Oyogu 泳およぐ (to swim)	〇	〇
Adjectives (Keiyōshi 形容詞けいようし)	A word that describes an attribute. Ex. Furui 古ふるい (old)	〇	〇
Adjectival Nouns (Keiyōdōshi 形容動詞けいようどうし)	A word that describes an attribute while also being noun-like. Ex. Kantan 簡単かんたん (easy)	〇	〇
Nouns (Meishi 名詞めいし)	A word that describes a person, place, state, quality, event, or thing. Ex. Inu 犬いぬ (dog)	〇	X
Pronouns (Daimeishi 代名詞だいめいし)	A word that indirectly describes a person, direction, or thing. Ex. Watashi 私わたし (I)	〇	X
Numbers (Sūshi 数詞すうし)	A word that counts or measures entities.  Ex. San 三さん (three)	〇	X
Adnominal Adjectives (Rentaishi 連体詞れんたいし)	A word that describes an attribute by directly modifying a noun. Ex. Kono この (this)	〇	X
Adverbs (Fukushi 副詞ふくし)	A word that qualifies an adjective, adjectival noun, or a verb.  Ex. Mada まだ (still)	〇	X
Conjunctions (Setsuzokushi 接続詞せつぞくじょし)	A word that connects a sentence together. Ex. Shikashi 然しかし (however)	〇	X
Interjections (Kandōshi 感動詞かんどうし)	A word that represents an abrupt/emotional remark/response.  Ex. Hai はい (yes)	〇	X
Auxiliary Verbs (Jodōshi 助動詞じょどうし)	An ending that attaches to a conjugatable part of speech.  Ex. –nai ～ない (not)	X	〇
Particles (Joshi 助詞じょし)	A word that marks some grammatical function. Ex. -(w)o を (object marker)	X	X

Particles　
助詞じょし

One part of speech that is entirely foreign to English speakers is “particles.” Particles indicate grammatical functions, but many of these functions do not align neatly with English equivalents.

Japanese particles are typically classified into six types: case, parallel, conjunctive, final, adverbial, and bound particles. These classifications are based on their use within a sentence. Importantly, the same particle can serve different roles depending, leading to a change in its classification, but individual roles never overlap in context. Great attention to what sort of complements (elements) of the sentence they attach to must be made to insure particles are used correctly.

• Case: (Kaku joshi 格助詞かくじょし): Indicates the grammatical function of a noun⁸.
• Parallel: (Heiritsu joshi 並立助詞へいりつじょし): Juxtaposes two or more things together. 
• Conjunctive (Setsuzoku joshi 接続助詞せつぞくじょし): Connects clauses together. 
• Final (Shū-joshi 終助詞しゅうじょし): Placed at the end of a phrase to provide emotional context.
• Adverbial (Fuku-joshi 副助詞ふくじょし): Indicates degree/condition/circumstance.  
• Bound (Kakari joshi 係助詞かかりじょし): Emphasis markers which dictate that a certain conjugation be used.

Japanese Writing　
日本語にほんごの表記体系ひょうきたいけい

Japanese uses a mixed writing system that includes Chinese characters, called kanji (漢字), and two syllabaries, hiragana (ひらがな) and katakana (カタカナ). Kanji are used to represent meaning, while hiragana and katakana are used to represent sound. Additionally, even English letters have become incorporated into the writing system.

Kana: Hiragana and Katakana　
仮名かな（平仮名ひらがな・片仮名かたかな）

Hiragana ひらがな and katakana カタカナ are collectively referred to as kana⁹ syllabaries. Both syllabaries are used to write out sounds phonetically. The primary differences between the two lie in their historical development and practical applications. Both systems derive from simplifications of Chinese characters (kanji), which is illustrated by the charts below.

The first table illustrates the origin of hiragana. The top row shows the kanji which resulted in the modern hiragana symbol shown in the third row. The middle row shows how the cursive means of writing the kanji ended up becoming the hiragana symbol¹⁰. The table is read from right to left, up and down, with the vowels—/a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/—listed in that order. Each subsequent column constitute the vowels combined with the consonant of said column—/k/, /s/, /t/, /n/, /h/, /m/ /y/, /r/, /w/, /ɴ¹¹/—in that order.

The second table illustrates the origin of katakana. Each katakana symbol is paired with the kanji which produced it, with the katakana being on the left and the kanji on the right. The parts in red in each kanji indicate the specific parts that were extracted to form the katakana symbols. The vowels—/a/, /i/, /u/, e/, /o/—are listed in that order from left to right. The consonants for the subsequent rows are in the same order as above—/k/, /s/, /t/, /n/, /h/, /m/ /y/, /r/, /w/, /ɴ/—but this time listed from top to bottom.

Kanji　
漢字かんじ

The exact number of kanji in existence is unknown. The Kanjigen 漢字源かんじげん, one of the most authoritative kanji dictionaries for the Japanese language, lists 9,990 entries. The most comprehensive proficiency test, the Kanji Nōryoku Kentei Ikkyū 漢字能力検定一級かんじのうりょくけんていいっきゅう, covers roughly 6,000 kanji. As for the average Japanese reader, most are familiar with over 3,000+ characters, and this number is gradually increasing thanks to the convenience of typing on electronic devices.

The Jōyō Kanji 常用漢字じょうようかんじ are kanji designated by the Japanese Ministry of Education as the basis for literacy, of which there are 2,136 as of 2017. Additional characters are designated as Jimmeiyō Kanji 人名用漢字じんめいようかんじ for name-use, of which there are 862 as of 2017.  

Beyond the sheer number of kanji, most characters have multiple readings (pronunciations), adding another layer of complexity to learning them. Readings which derive from earlier stages of various Chinese languages are known as ON readings (音読おんよみ on’yomi), and readings which generally correspond to native Japanese vocabulary are known as KUN readings (訓読くんよみ kun’yomi).

Kanji	ON Reading	KUN Reading
葉 (leaf)	YŌ	ha

※For ease of identification, ON readings tend to be capitalized in romanization and written in katakana in Japanese proper. Conversely, KUN readings tend to be lower-case in romanization and written in hiragana in Japanese proper.

While the number of ON readings is limited to how many times throughout antiquity newer readings were borrowed from the Chinese mainland, the number of KUN readings is determined by how many native words were attributed to the same kanji, each being distinguished from one another via context as well as differences in okurigana 送り仮名 (kana used to indicate native inflection).

Kanji	ON Reading(s)	KUN Reading(s)
強 (strong)	KYŌ → 強化きょうか KYŌKA (strengthening) GŌ → 強盗ごうとう GŌTŌ (robbery)	tsuyo(i) 強つよい (to be strong) tsuyo(maru) 強つよまる (to be strengthened) tsuyo(meru) 強つよめる (to strengthen) shi(iru) 強しいる (to coerce Kowa(i) 強こわい (to be tough) anaga(chi) 強あながち (not necessarily)
山 (mountain)	SAN → FUJISAN 富士山ふじさん (Mt. Fuji) ZAN → KAZAN 火山かざん(volcano) SEN → SHUMISEN 須弥山しゅみせん (Mount Meru)	yama 山やま (mountain)
火 (fire)	KA → 点火てんか TENKA (ignition)	hi 火ひ (fire) –bi → 弱火よわび yowabi (low flame) ho– → 火照ほてる hoteru (to feel hot)

In addition to varying okurigana 送り仮名, best exemplified by the various KUN readings of 強 above, various derivations of native Japanese words themselves result in different KUN readings, which is made evident above with 火. Differentiating between these KUN readings requires understanding how Japanese morphology works, which, while intuitive to native speakers, can be very challenging to learners.

Character Simplification　
漢字かんじの簡略化かんりゃくか

After World War II, many kanji were simplified. The older, more complex forms of these characters are known as Kyūjitai 旧字体, while the simplified versions that were introduced are called Shinjitai 新字体. You may still encounter the older forms Kyūjitai 旧字体 in names and publications prior to the 1960s. Most speakers are generally familiar with these traditional forms.

Meaning	Traditional	Simplified	Meaning	Traditional	Simplified
yen	圓	円	learning	學	学
battle	戰	戦	turtle	龜	亀

Curriculum Note: To learn more, see Kanji Simplification. 

Japanese-Made Kanji　
国字こくじ

Japanese speakers have also created their own kanji over the centuries. These kanji are known as kokuji 国字 or wasei kanji 和製漢字.

Meaning	Character	Meaning	Character	Meaning	Character
field	畑	to work	働	smell	匂
enclosure	塀	mountain pass	峠	frame(work)	枠

Curriculum Note: To learn more, see Japanese-Made Kanji．

English Letters　
ラテン文字もじの使つかい方かた

The use of English letters in the formation of new words is becoming ever more common. You will even see Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.). The pronunciations of these letters and numbers have been adapted to fit Japanese.

Example	Meaning
ＰＲ (Piiāru)	public relations
ＯＬ (Ōeru)	female office worker
ＣＤ（Shiidii）	CD
Ｔシャツ (Tiishatsu)	T-shirt
ＰＭ２.５ (Piiemu nii ten go)	fine particles (PM 2.5)
ＬＧＢT（Erujiibiitii）	LGBT

The use of full-width characters is preferred in Japanese. In English, half-width characters are exclusively used.

Rōmaji ローマ字じ  refers to writing Japanese in English letters, a process known as romanization. Here at いまび, a modified version of what is known as the Hepburn romanization system (ヘボン式しき) is implemented when appropriate. 

Punctuation
句読法くとうほう

Japanese was once void of any punctuation. However, due to contact with Western languages, Japanese has borrowed and adapted many punctuation marks.

Punctuation Mark	Japanese Punctuation
Period	。
Comma	、
Exclamation Point	！
Question Mark	？
Quotation Marks	「」
Double Quotation Marks	『』

Perhaps even more bizarre is that Japanese generally lacks spaces between words. Boundaries between phrases are meant to be obvious in context thanks to its mixed script. 

Word Etymology　
単語たんごの由来ゆらい

Japanese vocabulary comes from three sources: native words, Sino-Japanese words, and loanwords from other modern languages. 

・Native words form the core of the language, making up over 60% of the words used in everyday conversation. 
・Sino-Japanese words are words either directly borrowed from older forms of Chinese or words created from those roots. While they constitute over 60% of the language’s overall vocabulary, they account for only about 20% of words commonly used in conversation.
・Loanwords primarily come from English, though there are plenty of examples of borrowings from other languages.

Native	Sino-Japanese	LoanWORD
yama 山やま mountain	kazan 火山<かざん volcano	doa ドア (borrowed from English door) door
mizu 水 water	genki 元気げんき> lively/well	zubon ズボン (borrowed from French jupon) pants

Spoken vs Written
「口語こうご」と「文語ぶんご」との違ちがい

To communicate effectively in Japanese like a native speaker, it is equally important to learn how to read, write¹², and speak. The spoken language is full of colloquialisms, filler words, and nuanced undertones difficult to express in the written language. On the other hand, the written language is characterized as being formal, void of colloquialisms, and having a higher concentration of complex vocabulary and kanji.

Meaning	Spoken Language	Written Language
(And) then	そんで	それで
(Not) at all	ちっとも	少すこしも
Various	色いろんな	色々いろいろな
Finally	やっと	漸ようやく
Spoken Language	話はなし言葉ことば	口語
Written Language	書かき言葉ことば	文語

Alternative kanji spellings also help enrich the written language in ways not possible in the spoken language. Take, for example, the word toru meaning “to take.” Though it is just one word, it has all these different kanji spellings which differ only by what nuance of the word is intended.

Kanji Spelling	Nuance
取る	“to take” in the broadest sense possible.
撮る	to take a photo
摂る	to take vitamins, etc.
採る	to take a sample; to take a measure; to take flowers = to pick flowers
執る	to take command
捕る	to take an animal captive = to catch
獲る	to take as prey/as one’s prize
盗る	to take = to rob
録る	to take a recording

In Conclusion　最後さいごに…

Having learned so much about Japanese, now it is time to learn Japanese. Through the in-depth curriculum that いまび provides, you will learn all that you need to know to truly master the language.

Lastly, gambatte kudasai 頑張がんばってください (good luck)！

1. Hyōjungo 標準語, interchangeably referred to as kyōtsūgo 共通語, translates as “lingua franca.” Since Standard Japanese is the “lingua franca” of Japan, the two terms overlap in practicality. ↩︎
2. Many consonant sounds have alternate pronunciations (allophones) which appear in unique environments, which are not reflected in this count. ↩︎
3. /ɴ/ is a consonant not found in English. Though written with a stylized “n,” its basic pronunciation is made with the uvula. It is also known for having many allophones. ↩︎
4. When a subject is the doer of an action, that subject is more precisely described as being the “agent.” ↩︎
5. The predicate is the part of a sentence or clause containing a verbal element which states something about the subject. Predicates are composed of verbs, adjectives, or the copula verb. These predicate types all share parallel conjugation morphology. ↩︎
6. When a subject or object is dropped, it still remains structurally tied to the sentence despite its absence. This is why if they cannot be understood in context, the sentence becomes ungrammatical. ↩︎
7. A linguistic gloss gives a literal breakdown of each part of a sentence. Word boundaries and what constitutes a meaningful unit of meaning differ between languages. This is why glosses are so important to grammarians. ↩︎
8. Many case particles have multiple, often interrelated functions, and which function is intended will always be determined by the predicate (element of the sentence that composes the core event/action). ↩︎
9. When hiragana was invented, it was often called “woman’s writing” (on’nade 女手), whereas “man’s writing” (otokode 男手) was consumed by the use of kanji. However, that is not to say that men did not use both kana scripts. The word “kana” derives from kari 仮 meaning “temporary” and na 名 meaning “letters (of a writing system).” In turn, kanji were referred to as “true characters” mana 真名. Hiragana derived directly from the cursive forms of kanji. Katakana derived from abbreviations of kanji used as reading aids for Chinese texts to be interpreted into Japanese. The prefix kata– 片 goes back to each glyph is a “partial” representation of a full kanji. ↩︎
10. Hiragana variants that exist today differ in how broken down (degree of cursivity) the original kanji is written. ↩︎
11. /ɴ/ is a moraic, uvular nasal consonant and is responsible for why Japanese is described as having “morae” instead of “syllables.” Consequently, the kana syllabaries are not true syllabaries given how this phoneme has its own symbol. More will be learned about this unique phoneme in Lesson 2. ↩︎
12. “Writing” does not solely refer to writing things by hand. As is the case in any language, most “writing” in Japanese is done in the form of typing and texting. ↩︎